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Ottoman Empire

オスマン帝国

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オスマン帝国(オスマンていこく、オスマン語: دولت عالیه عثمانیهDevlet-i Âliye-yi Osmâniyye)は、トルコ系の王家オスマン家を君主とする多民族帝国で、現在のトルコの都市イスタンブルを首都とし、最大版図は、東西はアゼルバイジャンからモロッコに至り、南北はイエメンからウクライナに至る広大な領域に及んだ(1299年 - 1922年)。

アナトリア(小アジア)の片隅に生まれた小君侯国から発展したイスラム王朝であるオスマン朝は、やがて東ローマ帝国などの東ヨーロッパのキリスト教諸国、マムルーク朝などの西アジア・北アフリカのイスラム教諸国を征服して地中海世界の過半を覆い尽くす世界帝国たるオスマン帝国へと発展するが、18世紀頃から衰退してその領土は蚕食されて急速に縮小し、挽回を図り対ロシア攻略を主目的に第一次大戦に参戦、しかし敗戦により帝国は事実上解体。20世紀初頭についに最後まで残っていた領土アナトリアから新しく生まれ出たトルコ民族の国民国家、トルコ共和国に取って代わられた。

 

国名

英語でオスマン帝国を Ottoman Turks, Turkish Empire と呼んだことから、かつては「オスマントルコ」、「トルコ帝国」、「オスマントルコ帝国」、「オスマン朝トルコ帝国」とされることが多かったが、現在はオスマン帝国あるいは単にオスマン朝と表記するようになっており、オスマントルコという表記は使われなくなってきている。これは、君主(パーディシャー、スルタン)の出自はトルコ系で宮廷の言語もオスマン語と呼ばれるペルシア語やアラビア語の語彙を多く取り込んだトルコ語ではあったが、支配階層には民族・宗教の枠を越えて様々な出自の人々が登用されており、国内では多宗教・多民族が共存していたことから、単純にトルコ人の国家と は規定しがたいことを根拠としている。事実、オスマン帝国の内部の人々は滅亡の時まで決して自国を「トルコ帝国」とは称さず「オスマン家の崇高なる国家」 「オスマン国家」などと称しており、オスマン帝国はトルコ民族の国家であると認識する者は帝国の最末期までついに現れなかった。つまり、帝国の実態からも 正式な国号という観点からもオスマントルコという呼称は不適切であり、オスマン帝国をトルコと呼んだのは実は外部からの通称に過ぎない。

なお、オスマン帝国の後継国家であるトルコ共和国は正式な国号に初めて「トルコ」という言葉を採用したが、オスマン帝国を指すにあたっては「オスマン帝国」にあたる Osmanlı İmparatorluğu や「オスマン国家」にあたる Osmanlı Devleti の表記を用いるのが一般的であり、オスマン朝トルコ帝国という言い方は現地トルコにおいても行われることはない。

 

歴史

オスマン帝国は、後世の歴史伝承において始祖オスマン1世がアナトリア(小アジア)西北部に勢力を確立し新政権の王位についたとされる1299年を建国年とするのが通例であり、スルタン制が廃止されてメフメト6世が廃位された1922年が滅亡年とされる。

もっとも、オスマン朝の初期時代については同時代の史料に乏しく、史実と伝説が渾然としているので、正確な建国年を特定することは難しい。

 

建国と拡大の時代

13世紀末に、東ローマ帝国とルーム・セルジューク朝の国境地帯であったアナトリア西北部にあらわれたトルコ人の遊牧部族長オスマン1世が率いた軍事的な集団がオスマン帝国の起源である。この集団の性格については、遊牧民の集団であったとする説も根強いが、一般にはオスマンを指導者として結集したムスリム(イスラム教徒)のガーズィー(ジハードに従事する戦士)たちであったとする説が有力である。彼らオスマン集団は、周辺のキリスト教徒やムスリムの小領主・軍事集団と同盟したり戦ったりしながら次第に領土を拡大し、のちにオスマン帝国へと発展するオスマン君侯国 (Osmanlı Beyliği) を築き上げた。


1326年頃オスマンの後を継いだ子のオルハンは、即位と同じ頃に東ローマ帝国の地方都市プロウサ(現在のブルサ)を占領し、さらにマルマラ海を隔ててヨーロッパ大陸を臨むまでに領土を拡大した。ブルサはオスマン国家の行政の中心地となり、最初の首都としての機能を果たすことになる。

1346年、オルハンは東ローマの共治皇帝ヨハネス6世カンタクゼノスとの同盟をきっかけにダーダネルス海峡を渡ってバルカン半島のトラキアに進出、ヨーロッパ側での領土拡大を開始した。オルハンの子ムラト1世は、即位するとすぐにコンスタンティノープルとドナウ川流域とを結ぶ重要拠点アドリアノープル(現在のエディルネ)を占領、ここを第二の首都とするとともに、常備歩兵軍イェニチェリを創設するなど国制を整え、1389年にコソヴォの戦いでセルビア王国を中心とするバルカン諸国・諸侯の連合軍を破った。

ムラトの子バヤズィト1世は、1396年にブルガリア北部におけるニコポリスの戦いでハンガリー王を中心とした十字軍を撃破、領土を大きく広げた。しかし、1402年のアンカラの戦いでティムールに敗れて憤死し、バヤズィトの諸子の間で後継争いが起こって帝国の拡大は一時停滞した。

バヤズィトの子メフメト1世は、1412年に帝国の再統合に成功して失地を回復し、その子ムラト2世は再び襲来した十字軍を破り、バルカンに安定した支配を広げた。こうして高まった国力を背景に1453年、ムラトの子メフメト2世は東ローマ帝国の首都コンスタンティノープルを攻略し、ついにビザンツ帝国を滅ぼした(コンスタンティノープルの陥落)。コンスタンティノープルは以後オスマン帝国の首都となった。また、これ以後徐々にギリシア語に由来するイスタンブルという呼称がコンスタンティノープルに代わって用いられるようになった。


こうして15世紀末までにバルカンとアナトリアのほぼ全土を平定し、黒海北岸やエーゲ海の島々まで勢力を広げて黒海とエーゲ海を「オスマンの内海」とするに至ったオスマン帝国を1512年に継承した第9代セリム1世は、エジプトのマムルーク朝を滅してイスラム世界における支配領域をアラブ人居住地域に拡大し、またマムルーク朝の持っていたイスラム教の二大聖地マッカ(メッカ)とマディーナ(メディナ)の保護権を掌握してスンナ派イスラム世界の盟主の地位を獲得した。このときセリム1世がマムルーク朝の庇護下にあったアッバース朝の末裔からカリフの称号を譲られ、スルタン=カリフ制を創設したとする伝説は19世紀の創作で史実ではないが、イスラム世界帝国としてのオスマン帝国がマムルーク朝の併呑によってひとつの到達点に達したことは確かである。

 

オスマン帝国の最盛期


第10代スレイマン1世のとき、オスマン帝国の国力はもっとも充実して軍事力で他国を圧倒するに至り、その領域は中央ヨーロッパ、北アフリカにまで広がった。

スレイマン1世は即位するとまずベオグラードを征服してハンガリー領に進出し、ロードス島でムスリムに対する海賊行為を行っていた聖ヨハネ騎士団と戦ってこれを駆逐し、東地中海の制海権を握った。1526年にはモハーチの戦いでハンガリー王国を破り、その大半を占領する。さらに東ではサファヴィー朝からイラクのバグダードを奪い、南ではイエメンに出兵してアデンを征服した。

またこれに前後してハプスブルク家と対立していたフランスのフランソワ1世と同盟し、1529年にはハプスブルク家の神聖ローマ皇帝カール5世の都ウィーンを1ヶ月以上にわたって包囲した。第一次ウィーン包囲と呼ばれるこの作戦は失敗に終わったものの、オスマン軍がヨーロッパの奥深くを脅かしたことは西欧諸国に強い衝撃を与えた。さらに、1538年プレヴェザの海戦では、スペインなどの連合艦隊を破り、地中海のほぼ全域を支配下に置くことに成功した。そしてスレイマンはインドネシアのアチェ王国のスルタンであるアラー・ウッディーンの要請に応じて艦隊を派遣した。このとき艦隊はマラッカ海峡ま で行ったという。 スレイマンの治世はこのように輝かしい軍事的成功に彩られ、オスマン帝国の人々にとっては、建国以来オスマン帝国が形成してきた国制が完成の域に達し、制 度上の破綻がなかった理想の時代として記憶された。しかし、スレイマンの治世はオスマン帝国の国制の転換期の始まりでもあった。象徴的には、スレイマン以 降、君主が陣頭に立って出征することはなくなり、政治すらもほとんど大宰相(首相)が担うようになる。

また、軍事構造の転換によって火砲で武装した歩兵であるイェニチェリを核とする常備軍の重要性が高まり、その人員が爆発的に増大して維持費が軍事費を圧迫し、かわって在地の騎士であるスィパーヒー層が没落していった。それに応じてスィパーヒーに軍役と引き換えにひとつの税源からの徴税権を付与していた従来のティマール制は消滅し、かわって徴税権を競売に付して購入者に請け負わせる徴税請負制(イルティザーム制)が財政の主流となる。従来このような変化はスレイマン以降の帝国の衰退としてとらえられたが、しかしむしろ帝国の政治・社会・経済の構造が世界的な趨勢に応じて大きく転換されたのだとの議論が現在では一般的である。制度の項で後述する高度な官僚機構は、むしろスレイマン後の17世紀になって発展を始めたのである。

なお、スレイマンは同盟したフランスに対し、カピチュレーション(恩恵的待遇)を与えたが、カピチュレーションはフランス人に対してオスマン帝国領内での治外法権な どを認めた。一方的な特権を認める不平等性はイスラム国際法の規定に基づいた合法的な恩典であり、カピチュレーションはまもなくイギリスをはじめ諸外国に 認められることになった。しかし絶頂期のオスマン帝国の実力のほどを示すステータスであったカピチュレーションは、帝国が衰退へ向かいだした19世紀には、西欧諸国によるオスマン帝国への内政干渉の足がかりに過ぎなくなり、不平等条約として重くのしかかることになった。

 

帝国支配の混乱と衰退

スレイマンの死から5年後の1571年、レパントの海戦で オスマン艦隊はスペイン連合艦隊に敗北し、地中海の覇権を失った。もっとも、しばしば言われるようにここでオスマン帝国の勢力がヨーロッパ諸国に対して劣 勢に転じたわけではなく、その国力は依然として強勢であり、また地中海の制海権が一朝にオスマン帝国の手から失われることはなかった。帝国艦隊は敗戦から 半年で同規模の艦隊を再建し、1573年にはキプロス島、翌年にはチュニスを獲得した。

しかし、繁栄の裏ではスレイマン時代に始まった宮廷の弛緩から危機が進んでいた。1579年、スレイマン時代から帝国を支えた大宰相ソコルル・メフメト・パシャが暗殺されて以来、宮廷に篭りきりになった君主に代わって政治を支えるべき大宰相は頻繁に交代し、さらに17世紀前半には、君主の母后たちが権勢をふるって政争を繰り返したため、政治が混乱した。しかも経済面では、16世紀末頃から新大陸産の銀の流入による物価の高騰(価格革命)や、連年の戦役による軍事費の増大が財政を苦しめ、さらにアナトリアで民衆反乱が群発するに至り、帝国内は急速に動揺し始める。 そのような情勢の下で1645年に起こったヴェネツィア共和国との戦争は1656年、ヴェネツィア艦隊の海上封鎖を招き、物流が滞って物価が高騰した首都は、暴動と反乱の危険にさらされた。この危機に際して大宰相に抜擢されたキョプリュリュ・メフメト・パシャは全権を掌握して事態を収拾したが4年で急逝、その死後は息子キョプリュリュ・アフメト・パシャが続いて大宰相となり、父の政策を継いで国勢の立て直しに尽力した。2代続いたキョプリュリュ家の政権は、当時オスマン帝国で成熟を迎えていた官僚機構を掌握、安定政権を築き上げることに成功する。先述したオスマン帝国の構造転換はキョプリュリュ期に安定し、一応の完成をみた。キョプリュリュ家の執政期にオスマン帝国はクレタ島やウクライナにまで領土を拡大し、スレイマン時代に勝る最大版図を達成したのである。

しかしキョプリュリュ・メフメト・パシャの娘婿カラ・ムスタファ・パシャは功名心から1683年に第二次ウィーン包囲を強行する。一時包囲を成功させるも、ポーランド王ヤン3世ソビエスキ率いる欧州諸国の援軍に敗れ、16年間の戦争状態に入る。戦後、1699年に結ばれたカルロヴィッツ条約において、史上初めてオスマン帝国の領土は削減され、東欧の覇権はハプスブルク家のオーストリアに奪われた。1700年にはロシアとスウェーデンの間で起こった大北方戦争に巻き込まれ、スウェーデン王カール12世の逃亡を受け入れたオスマン帝国は、ピョートル1世の治下で国力の増大著しいロシア帝国との苦しい戦いを強いられた。ロシアとは、1711年のプルート川の戦いで有利な講和を結ぶことに成功するが、続くオーストリアとの戦争のために、1718年のパッサロヴィッツ条約でセルビアの重要拠点ベオグラードを失う。

このように、17世紀末から18世紀にかけては軍事的衰退が表面化したが、これを期に西欧技術・文化の吸収を図り、後期のトルコ・イスラム文化が成熟していった時代でもあった。中でもアフメト3世の大宰相イブラヒム・パシャ(在任1718年-1730年)の執政時代に対外的には融和政策が取られ、泰平を謳歌する雰囲気の中で西方の文物が取り入れられて文化の円熟期を迎えた。この時代は西欧から逆輸入されたチューリップが装飾として流行したことから、チューリップ時代と呼ばれている。しかし、1730年、サファヴィー朝の混乱に乗じて行われたイラン戦役が、ナーディル・シャーの登場でオスマン側に劣勢に動き始めると、浪費政治への不満を募らせていた人々はパトロナ・ハリルの乱を起こして君主と大宰相を交代させるに至り、チューリップ時代は終焉した。

やがて1739年のベオグラード条約でベオグラードを奪還し、1747年にナーディル・シャーが没すると戦争は止み、オスマン帝国は平穏な18世紀中葉を迎える。この間に地方では、徴税請負制を背景に地方の徴税権を掌握したアーヤーンと呼ばれる地方名士が台頭して、彼らの手に支えられた緩やかな経済発展が進んではいたが、しかし産業革命が波及して急速な近代化への道を歩み始めたヨーロッパ諸国との国力の差は決定的なものとなり、スレイマン1世時にヨーロッパ諸国に与えたカピチュレーションを利用して、ヨーロッパはオスマン領土への進出を始めたのであった。

 

近代化をめざす「瀕死の病人」

18世紀末に入ると、ロシア帝国の南下によってオスマン帝国の小康は破られた。1774年、キュチュク・カイナルジャ条約によって帝国は黒海の北岸を喪失し、1792年にも再び敗れてロシアのクリミア半島の領有を認めざるを得なかった。改革の必要性を痛感したセリム3世は翌1793年、ヨーロッパの軍制を取り入れた新式陸軍「ニザーム・ジェディード」を創設するが、計画はイェニチェリの反対により頓挫し、廃位された。かつてオスマン帝国の軍事的成功を支えたイェニチェリは隊員の世襲化が進み、もはや既得権に固執するのみの旧式軍に過ぎなくなっていた。

この時代にはさらに、18世紀から成長を続けていたアーヤーンが地方政治の実権を握り、ギリシャ北部からアルバニアを支配したテペデレンリ・アリー・パシャのように半独立政権の主のように振舞うものも少なくない有様で、かつてオスマン帝国の発展を支えた強固な中央集権体制は無実化した。さらに1798年のナポレオン・ボナパルトのエジプト遠征をきっかけにエジプトの実権を掌握したムハンマド・アリーは、1830年反乱を起こしてエジプトの世襲支配権を中央政府に認めさせ、事実上独立した。

一方、フランス革命から波及した民族独立と解放の機運はバルカンのキリスト教徒諸民族のナショナリズムを呼び覚まし、ギリシャ独立戦争(1821年 - 1829年)によってギリシャ王国が独立を果たした。これに加えて、バルカン半島への勢力拡大を目指すロシアとオーストリア、勢力均衡を狙うイギリスとフランスの思惑が重なり合い、19世紀のオスマン帝国を巡る国際関係は紆余曲折を経ていった。このオスマン帝国をめぐる国際問題を東方問題という。バルカンの諸民族は次々とオスマン帝国から自治、独立を獲得し、20世紀初頭にはオスマン帝国の勢力範囲はバルカンのごく一部とアナトリア、アラブ地域だけになる。

オスマン帝国はこのような帝国内外からの挑戦に対して防戦にまわるしかなく、ヨーロッパから「瀕死の病人」と呼ばれる惨状を露呈した。

しかし、オスマン帝国はこれに対してただ手をこまねいていたわけではなかった。1808年に即位したマフムト2世はイェニチェリを廃止して軍の西欧化を推進し、外務・内務・財務3省を新設して中央政府を近代化させ、翻訳局を設置し留学生を西欧に派遣して人材を育成し、さらにアーヤーンを討伐して中央政府の支配の再確立を目指した。さらに1839年、アブデュルメジト1世は、改革派官僚ムスタファ・レシト・パシャの起草したギュルハネ勅令を発布して全面的な改革政治を開始することを宣言、行政から軍事、文化に至るまで西欧的体制への転向を図るタンジマートを始めた。タンジマートのもとでオスマン帝国は中央集権的な官僚機構と近代的な軍隊を確立し、西欧型国家への転換を進めていった。

1853年にはロシアとの間でクリミア戦争が起こるが、イギリスなどの加担によってきわどく勝利を収めた。このとき、イギリスなどに改革目標を示して支持を獲得する必要に迫られたオスマン帝国は、1856年に改革勅令を発布して非ムスリムの権利を認める改革をさらにすすめることを約束した。こうして第二段階に入ったタンジマートは宗教法(シャリーア)と西洋近代法の折衷を目指した新法典の制定、近代教育を行う学校の開設、国有地原則を改めて近代的土地私有制度を認める土地法の施行など、踏み込んだ改革が進められた。

しかし、改革と戦争の遂行は西欧列強からの多額の借款を必要とし、さらに貿易拡大から経済が西欧諸国への原材料輸出へ特化したために農業のモノカルチャー化が進んで、帝国は経済面から半植民地化していった。この結果、ヨーロッパ経済と農産品収穫量の影響を強く受けるようになった帝国財政は、1875年、西欧金融恐慌と農産物の不作が原因で破産した。

こうしてタンジマートは抜本的な改革を行えず挫折に終わったことが露呈され、新たな改革を要求された帝国は、1876年、大宰相ミドハト・パシャのもとで「アジア最初の成文憲法」と言われるオスマン帝国憲法(通称ミドハト憲法)を公布した。憲法はオスマン帝国が西欧型の法治国家であることを宣言し、帝国議会の設置、ムスリムと非ムスリムのオスマン臣民としての完全な平等を定めた。

だが憲法発布から間もない1878年に、オスマン帝国はロシアとの露土戦争に完敗し、帝都イスタンブル西郊のサン・ステファノまでロシアの進軍を許した。専制体制復活を望むアブデュルハミト2世は、ロシアとはサン・ステファノ条約を 結んで講和する一方で、非常事態を口実として憲法の施行を停止した。これ以降、アブデュルハミト2世による反動専制の時代がはじまるが、この時代は専制の 一方で財政破産以降に帝国経済を掌握した諸外国による資本投下が進み、都市には西洋文化が浸透した。また西欧の工業製品と競合しない繊維工業などの分野で民族資本が育ち、専制に抵触しない範囲での新聞・雑誌の刊行が拡大されたことは、のちの憲政復活後の民主主義、民族主義の拡大を準備した。

 

世界大戦から滅亡への道

アブデュルハミトが専制をしく影で、西欧式の近代教育を受けた青年将校や下級官吏らは専制による政治の停滞に危機感を強めていた。彼らは1889年に結成された「統一と進歩委員会」(通称「統一派」)をはじめとする青年トルコ人運動に参加し、憲法復活を求めて国外や地下組織で反政権運動を展開した。

1908年、サロニカ(現在のテッサロニキ)の統一派を中心とするマケドニア駐留軍の一部が蜂起して無血革命に成功、憲政を復活させた(青年トルコ革命)。彼らは1909年には保守派の反革命運動を鎮圧、1913年には自らクーデターを起こし、統一派の中核指導者タラート・パシャ、エンヴェル・パシャらを指導者とする統一派政権を確立した。統一派は次第にトルコ民族主義に傾斜していき、政権を獲得するとトルコ民族資本を保護する政策を取り、カピチュレーションの一方的な廃止を宣言した。

この間にも、サロニカを含むマケドニアとアルバニア、リビアが帝国から失われた。バルカンを喪失した統一派政権は汎スラヴ主義拡大の脅威に対抗するためドイツに近づき、1914年に始まる第一次世界大戦では同盟国側で参戦した。

この戦争でオスマン帝国はアラブ人に反乱を起こされ、ガリポリの戦いなどいくつかの重要な防衛線では勝利を収めるものの劣勢は覆すことができなかった。帝国は1918年に降伏し、国土の大半はイギリス、フランスなどの連合国によって占領された。

敗戦により統一派政府は瓦解、首謀者は亡命し、この機に皇帝メフメト6世は、専制政治の復活を狙って、連合国による帝国各地の占拠を許容した。さらに、連合国の支援を受けたギリシャ軍がイズミルに上陸、エーゲ海沿岸地域を占拠した。この帝国分割の危機に対し、アナトリアでは、一時期統一派に属しながら統一派と距離を置いていた大戦中の英雄ムスタファ・ケマル(ケマル・パシャ)を指導者として、トルコ人が多数を占める地域(アナトリアとバルカンの一部)の保全を求める運動が起こり、アンカラにトルコ大国民議会を組織して抵抗政府を結成した。

一方連合国は、1920年、講和条約としてセーヴル条約を メフメト6世に押し付けた。この条約はオスマン帝国領の大半を連合国に分割する内容だったため、ギリシャ軍のアナトリア進攻に正当性を与えたが、かえって トルコ人の更なる反発を招いた。ケマルを総司令官とするトルコ軍はアンカラに迫ったギリシャ軍に勝利し、翌年にはイズミルを奪還して、ギリシャとの間に休 戦協定を結んだ。これを見た連合国はセーヴル条約の履行を諦め、新しい講和条約(ローザンヌ条約)の交渉を通告。講和会議に、メフメト6世のオスマン帝国政府とともに、ケマルのアンカラ政府を招請した。1922年、ケマルは、オスマン国家の二重政府の解消を名目として、これを機にスルタンとカリフの職権分離と、スルタン制の廃止を大国民議会に決議させた。廃帝メフメト6世はマルタへ亡命し、オスマン帝国政府は名実共に滅亡した(トルコ革命)。

翌1923年、大国民議会は共和制を宣言し、多民族帝国オスマン国家は新たにトルコ民族の国民国家トルコ共和国に生まれ変わった。トルコ共和国は1924年、スルタン制の廃止後もオスマン家に残されていたカリフの地位を廃止、オスマン家の成員をトルコ国外に追放し、オスマン王権は完全に消滅した。

 

制度

オスマン帝国の国家の仕組みについては、近代歴史学の中でさまざまな評価が行われている。ヨーロッパの歴史家たちがこの国家を典型な東方的専制帝国 であるとみなす一方、オスマン帝国の歴史家たちはイスラムの伝統に基づく世界国家であるとみなしてきた。また19世紀末以降には、民族主義の高まりからト ルコ民族主義的な立場が強調され、オスマン帝国の起源はトルコ系の遊牧民国家にあるという議論が盛んに行われた。

20世紀前半には、ヨーロッパにおける東ローマ帝国に対する関心の高まりから、オスマン帝国の国制と東ローマ帝国の国制の比較が行われた。ここにおいて東ローマ帝国滅亡から間もない時代にはオスマン帝国の君主がルーム(ローマ帝国)のカイセル(皇帝)と自称するケースがあったことなどの史実が掘り起こされたり、帝国がコンスタンティノープル総主教の任命権を通じて東方正教徒を支配したことが東ローマの皇帝教皇主義の延長とみなされる議論がなされ、オスマン帝国は東ローマ帝国の継続であるとする、ネオ・ビザンチン説もあらわれた。(カエサルを自称したスルタンはスレイマンなどほんの一握りだった)

このようにこの帝国の国制の起源にはさまざまな要素の存在が考えられており、「古典オスマン体制」と呼ばれる最盛期のオスマン帝国が実現した精緻な制度を考える上で興味深い論議を提供している。

オスマン帝国の国制が独自に発展を遂げ始めたのはおおよそムラト1世の頃からと考えられている。帝国の拡大にともない次第に整備されてきた制度は、スレイマン1世の時代にほぼ完成し、君主を頂点に君主専制・中央集権を実現した国家体制に結実した。これを「古典オスマン体制」という。

軍制は、地方に居住し徴税権を委ねられたティマール制による騎兵スィパーヒーと、中央のカプクル(「門の奴隷」の意)常備軍団からなり、カプクルの人材は主にキリスト教徒の子弟を徴集するデヴシルメ制度によって供給された。カプクル軍団の最精鋭である常備歩兵軍イェニチェリは、火器を扱うことから軍事革命の進んだ16世紀に重要性が増し、地方・中央の騎兵を駆逐して巨大な常備軍に発展する。ちなみにこの時代、欧州はまだ常備軍をほとんど持っていなかった。

帝国の領土は直轄州、独立採算州、属国からなる。属国(クリミア、ワラキア、モルダヴィア、トランシルヴァニア、ヒジャーズなど)は君主の任免権を帝国中央が掌握しているのみで、原則として自治に委ねられていた。独立採算州(エジプトなど)は州知事(総督)など要職が中央から派遣される他は、現地の有力者に政治が任せられ、州行政の余剰金を中央政府に上納するだけであった。直轄州は州(大軍管区)、県(小軍管区)、郡(法官管区)に分かれ、郡ごとにカーディーが任命されて行政を担当し、県と州にはそれぞれサンジャクベイ(県知事)、ベイレルベイ(州知事)と呼ばれる軍人が任命されて管区内の兵を統括した。

中央では、君主を頂点とし、大宰相(サドラザム)以下の宰相(ヴェズィール)がこれを補佐し、彼らと軍人法官(カザスケル)、財務長官(デフテルダル)、国璽尚書(ニシャンジュ)から構成される御前会議(ディーヴァーヌ・ヒュマーユーン)が最高政策決定機関として機能した。17世紀に君主が政治の表舞台から退くと、大宰相が君主の代理人として全権を掌握するようになり、宮廷内の御前会議から大宰相の公邸である大宰相府(バーブ・アーリー)に政治の中枢は移る。同じ頃、宮廷内の御前会議事務局から発展した官僚機構が大宰相府の所管になり、名誉職化した国璽尚書に代わって実務のトップとなった書記官長(レイスルキュッターブ)、大宰相府の幹部である大宰相用人(サダーレト・ケトヒュダース)などを頂点とする高度な官僚機構が発展した。


中央政府の官僚機構は、軍人官僚(カプクル)と、法官官僚(ウラマー)と、書記官僚(キャーティプ)の3つの柱から成り立つ。軍人官僚のうちエリートは宮廷でスルタンに近侍する小姓や太刀持ちなどの役職を経て、イェニチェリの軍団長や県知事・州知事に採用され、キャリアの頂点に中央政府の宰相、大宰相があった。法官官僚は、メドレセ(宗教学校)でイスラム法を修めた者が担い手であり、郡行政を司り裁判を行うカーディーの他、メドレセ教授やムフティーの公職を与えられた。カーディーの頂点が軍人法官(カザスケル)であり、ムフティーの頂点がイスラムに関する事柄に関する帝国の最高権威たる「イスラムの長老」(シェイヒュルイスラーム)である。書記官僚は、書記局内の徒弟教育によって供給され、始めは数も少なく地位も低かったが、大宰相府のもとで官僚機構の発展した17世紀から18世紀に急速に拡大し、行政の要職に就任し宰相に至る者もあらわれるようになる。この他に、宦官を宮廷使役以外にも重用し、宦官出身の州知事や宰相も少なくない点もオスマン帝国の人的多様性を示す特徴と言える。

これらの制度は、19世紀以降の改革によって次第に西欧を真似た機構に改められていった。例えば、書記官長は外務大臣、大宰相用人は内務大臣に改組され、大宰相は御前会議を改めた閣議の長とされて事実上の内閣を率いる首相となった。

しかし、例えば西欧法が導入され、世俗法廷が開設されても一方ではシャリーア法廷がそのまま存続したように、イスラム国家と しての伝統的・根幹的な制度は帝国の最末期まで廃止されることはなかった。帝国の起源がいずれにあったとしても、末期のオスマン帝国においては国家の根幹 は常にイスラムに置かれていた。これらのイスラム国家的な制度に改革の手が入れられるのは、ようやく20世紀前半の統一派政権時代であり、その推進は帝国 滅亡後のトルコ共和国による急速な世俗化改革をまたねばならなかった。

 

文化

オスマン朝では、神学や哲学のような形而上の学問ではアラブ・イランのものを上回るものはあらわれなかったと言われるが、それ以外の分野では数多くの優れた作品を残した。


建築は、イスラムの伝統様式を発展させ、オスマン建築と呼ばれる独特の様式を生み出した。モスクなどに現存する優れた作品が多く、17世紀に立てられたスルタンアフメット・モスク(ブルーモスク)がもっとも有名である。建築家はイスタンブルのスレイマニエ・モスクやエディルネのセリミエ・モスクを建てた16世紀前半のミマール・スィナンが代表的であるが、アルメニア人の建築家も数多く活躍した。宮殿では、伝統的建築のトプカプ宮殿や、バロック様式とオスマン様式を折衷させたドルマバフチェ宮殿が名高い。

陶芸は、16~17世紀のイズニクで、鮮やかな彩色陶器が生産された。この時代につくられたモスクや宮殿の壁を飾った色鮮やかな青色のイズニク・タイルは、現在の技術では再現できないという。18世紀以降は陶器生産の中心はキュタヒヤに移り、現在も美しい青色・緑色のタイルや皿が生産されている。

文学は、トルコ語にアラビア語・ペルシア語の語彙・語法をふんだんに取り入れて表現技法を発達させたオスマン語が生まれ、ディーワーン詩や散文の分野でペルシア文学の影響を受けた数多くの作品があらわされた。チューリップ時代の詩人ネディームはペルシア文学の模倣を脱したと評価されているが、その後は次第に形式化してゆく(トルコ文学の記事も参照)。


美術の分野では、イスラム世界から受け継いだアラビア文字の書道が発展し、絵画はイラン経由で中国絵画の技法を取り入れたミニアチュール(細密画)が伝わり、写本に多くの美しい挿絵が描かれた。ヨーロッパ絵画の影響を受けて遠近法や陰影の技法が取り入れられ、特にチューリップ時代の画家レヴニーは写本の挿絵に留まらない、少年や少女の一枚絵を書いた。

音楽はアラブ音楽の影響を受けたリュート系統の弦楽器や笛を用いた繊細な宮廷音楽(オスマン古典音楽)と、チャルメラ・ラッパや太鼓の類によって構成された勇壮な軍楽(メフテル)とがオスマン帝国の遺産として受け継がれている(トルコ音楽の記事も参照)。

園芸では、チューリップ、ヒアシンス、アネモネ、ラナンキュラスなどが庭園で栽培され園芸植物化され、多くの品種を生じた。これらは16世紀にヨーロッパに伝えられ、フローリスツ・フラワーとして発展し、現在も重要な園芸植物として扱われている。

 

 

 

 

オスマン帝国を題材にした文学

オスマン帝国史を題材にとった歴史文学には、トルコ人の作家オルハン・パムクの『わたしの名は紅』藤原書店がある。パムクはこの小説によって、2006年ノーベル文学賞を受賞した。

日本の小説では塩野七生の『コンスタンティノープルの陥落』『ロードス島攻防記』『レパントの海戦』(いずれも新潮文庫)などがある。

 

Ottoman Turkish language

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Ottoman Turkish (Turkish: Osmanlıca or Osmanlı Türkçesi, Ottoman Turkish: لسان عثمانیlisân-ı Osmânî) is the variety of the Turkish language that was used as the administrative and literary language of the Ottoman Empire. It contains extensive borrowings from Arabic and Persian languages and was written in a variant of the Arabic script. As a result of this process, Ottoman Turkish was largely unintelligible to the less-educated members of society.

 

Structure

As in most other Turkic languages of Islamic communities, the Arabic borrowings were not the result of direct exposure of Ottoman Turkish to Arabic, a fact that is evidenced by the typically Persian phonological mutation of the words of Arabic origin. The conservation of archaic phonological features of the Arabic borrowings furthermore suggests that Arabic-enriched Persian was absorbed into pre-Ottoman Turkic at an early stage, when the speakers were still located to the northeast of Persia, prior to the westward migration of the Islamic Turkic tribes. An additional argument for this is that Ottoman Turkish shares the Persian character of its Arabic borrowings with other Turkic languages that had even less interaction with Arabic, such as Tatar and Uygur.

In a social and pragmatic sense, there were (at least) three variants of Ottoman Turkish:

  • Fasih Türkçe (Eloquent Turkish): the language of poetry and administration, Ottoman Turkish in its strict sense;
  • Orta Türkçe (Middle Turkish): the language of higher classes and trade;
  • Kaba Türkçe (Rough Turkish): the language of lower classes.

A person would use each of the varieties above for different purposes. For example, a scribe would use the Arabic asel (عسل) to refer to honey when writing a document, but would use the native Turkish word bal when buying it.


History

Historically, Ottoman Turkish was transformed in three eras:

  • Eski Osmanlı Türkçesi (Old Ottoman Turkish): The version of Ottoman Turkish used until 16th century. It was almost identical with the Turkish used by Seljuks and Anatolian Turkish Beyliks, thus often regarded as part of Eski Anadolu Türkçesi (Ancient Anatolian Turkish).
  • Orta Osmanlı Türkçesi (Middle Ottoman Turkish) or Klasik Osmanlıca (Classical Ottoman Turkish): Language of poetry and administration from 16th century until Tanzimat. This is the version of Ottoman Turkish that comes to most people's minds.
  • Yeni Osmanlı Türkçesi (New Ottoman Turkish): Shaped from 1850s to 20th century under influence of journalism and Western-oriented literature.

Language reform

In 1928, following the fall of the Ottoman Empire after World War I and the establishment of Republic of Turkey, widespread language reforms (a part in the greater framework of Atatürk's Reforms) instituted by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk saw the replacement of many Persian and Arabic origin loanwords in the language with their Turkish equivalents. It also saw the replacement of the Perso-Arabic script with the extended Latin alphabet. The changes were meant to encourage the growth of a new variety of written Turkish that more closely reflected the spoken vernacular, as well as to foster a new variety of spoken Turkish that more explicitly reflected Turkey's new national identity as being a post-Ottoman state.

Please see the list of replaced loanwords in Turkish for more examples on Ottoman Turkish words and their modern Turkish counterparts. Two examples of Arabic and two of Persian loanwords are found below.

English Ottoman Modern Turkish
obligatory واجب vâcib zorunlu
hardship مشکل müşkül güçlük, zorluk
city شهر şehir kent/şehir
war جنگ cenk savaş

Legacy

Historically speaking, Ottoman Turkish is not the predecessor of modern Turkish, but rather the standard Turkish of today is essentially Yeni Osmanlı Türkçesi as written in the Latin alphabet and with an abundance of neologisms added. One major difference between modern Turkish and Ottoman Turkish is the former's abandonment of compound word formation according to Arabic and Persian grammar rules. The usage of such phrases still exists in modern Turkish, but only to a very limited extent and usually in specialist contexts; for example, the Persian genitive construction takdîr-i ilâhî (which reads literally as "the preordaining of the divine", and translates as "divine dispensation" or "destiny") is used, as opposed to the normative modern Turkish construction, ilâhî takdîr (literally, "divine preordaining").


Alphabet

Ottoman Turkish was primarily written in the Ottoman Turkish script (الفبا elifbâ), a variant of the Perso-Arabic script. It was not, however, unknown for Ottoman Turkish to also be written using the Armenian script: for instance, the first novel to be written in the Ottoman Empire was 1851's Akabi, written in the Armenian script by Vartan Pasha. Similarly, when the Armenian Düzoğlu family managed the Ottoman mint during the reign of Sultan Abdülmecid, they kept records in Ottoman Turkish, but used the Armenian script. Other scripts, too—such as the Greek alphabet and the Rashi script of Hebrew—were used by non-Muslim groups to write the language, since the Arabic alphabet was identified with Islam. On the other hand, for example, Greek-speaking Muslims would write Greek using the Ottoman Turkish script.

Isolated Final Middle Initial Name ALA-LC Transliteration Modern Turkish
elif a, â a, e
hemze ˀ ', a, e, i, u, ü
be b, p b
pe p p
te t t
se s s
cim c, ç c
çim ç ç
ha h
h
dal d d
zel z z
re r r
ze z z
je j j
sin s s
şın ş ş
sad s
ﺿ dad ż, d, z
t
z
ayın ʿ ', h
gayın ġ g, ğ
fe f f
kaf k
kef k, g, ñ k, g, ğ, n
gef¹ g g, ğ
nef, sağır (deaf) kef ñ n
lam l l
mim m m
nun n n
vav v, o, ô, ö, u, û, ü v, o, ö, u, ü
he h, e, a h, e, a
lamelif la
ye y, ı, i, î y, ı, i

1A correct Ottoman variant of gef will have the "mini-kaf" of ﻙ and the doubled upper stroke of گ. This feature is surely rare in current fonts.

 

Educational opportunities in Ottoman Turkish

Educational opportunities for Ottoman Turkish (Osmanli Turki) are too numerous to provide an exhaustive list. Suffice it to say that thousands of courses in Ottoman Turkish Literature are offered around the world. In Turkey alone it is estimated that more than thirty thousand students are learning Ottoman Turkish

The Fundamental Reforms During The Reign Of Mahmud II

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Mahmud II succeeded in reforming the Ottoman Administrative Organization of 400 years, which would be completed after Tanzimah (Reforms). However, that reformation which was merely made of useless imitation of Europe did no farther than formality. The majority of the reforms pertained to the central organization of the Ottoman State. Mahmud II, who felt himself stronger after he had abrogated the Janissary Corps in 1241/1826, realized the following significant amendments in the central organization:

Two important supreme councils were established in order to restore the manner of counsel as the Imperial Council, which formed the core of the Central Organization, had lost its quality of being a council and again in order to distinguish the executive and judicial tasks, which was formerly carried out by the Imperial Council: The first is Majlis al-Akhqam al-Adliyyah, which was established to execute the legislative authority and juridical task of the Imperial Council. That council maintained the judicial aspect of the Imperial Council. Again that council was charged with the task of introducing any required codes as well as any arrangements required by the country in administrative, judicial and financial fields.

The second is Dar al-Shurah al-Bab al-Ali, which was kind of a supreme executive council. The execution of the administrative function of the State was thoroughly conveyed to that institution. The said institutions that were established on Muharrem11, 1254/1837 undertook the former Imperial Council’s tasks and the senior statesmen, chiefly those ministers of the newly-formed ministries, took part in their meetings as members of those councils. In other words, both of the councils functioned as legislative and executive organs. When the Imperial Council lost its function, such administrative units as composed it also lost their significance and eventually the manner of ministries – which is current today – (ministers and Council of Ministers) began to be assumed. That is to say, the executive functions of the State were distributed among various ministries:

- The Office of Principal Executive Officer of Grand Vizier (Sadarat Qathudalığı) was abrogated and the Ministry of Interior (Nazarah al-Umur al-Mulkiyyah) was established instead (1251/1835).

- The Office of Chief Executive Assistant to Grand Vizier (Reis’ul-Quttablık) was replaced by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs (1251/1836).

- The Office of Chawusbashilik of the Sublime Porte was replaced by the Ministry of Justice (Nazarah al-Da’awi, lit. Ministry of Judicial Pleas) (1252/1836).

- Ministry of Grain and Provisions (Nazarah al-Zahirah) and Council on Public Works (Majlis al-Umur al-Nafiah) were abolished and they were replaced by Ministry of Trade (Rabi’ul-ahir 6th, 1255/1839).

- The Storehouse of Ottoman Cadastral and Other Property Records (Defterhane) was replaced by Ministry of Finance (Nazarah al-Maliyyah) in 1253/1838.

- Ministry of Gunpowder Works and the similar military administrations were replaced by Ministry of War (1251/1835). Besides, the Deliberative Council of Army was established.

- Those administrative units that look to the internal affairs of the Palace were restructured under the title of Ministry of Imperial Palace Service (Nazarah al-Andarun al-Humuyun) (1249/1833).

- Such administrative organizations pertaining to various endowments were united in 1242/1826 and Ministry of Imperial Foundations was established.

After the Office of Shaikhulislam also had been accepted as a ministry, the terms Grand Vizier (Sadrazam) and Grand Vizierate were replaced with Prime Minister and Prime Ministry in 1254/1838. And that council composed of all those ministers was titled Majlis al-Wuqalah and Hay’ah al-Waqilah, which come to mean the Council of Ministers.

Mahmud II, who had Taqwim al-Waqa’i, the first Ottoman official gazette, published and some legal arrangements as regards to the army and civil officers of the State, particularly the Penal Codes for the Army (Qanunnamah al-Jazah al-Asqeriyyah) prepared thus also became the pioneer of the Tanzimah (Reforms) Movement. Again with the Imperial Penal Codes as regards to the Legal Functionaries and Professors of the Canon Law dated 1254/1838 he intended to arrange officers of courts and sciences that executed the legislative task.

We here regret to state that reforms materialized during Mahmud II were – excluding very few thereof – formally rather than radically. Instead of receiving the science and technology of Europe, they began to imitate their clothing, and other not-so-pleasant customs. Therefore, the reforms were not quite liked by public. The statement of Damad Khalil Rif’at Pasha “Unless we get like Europe, we shall have to recede to Asia” was misapplied. The hanging of photos of Mahmud II in government offices, the compulsory wearing of jackets, trousers and fezzes, even the abolition of the Mehter band and Mehterhane (Ottoman Military music Organization) just because the Janissaries had used it and the most important of all, the introduction of the terms Prime Minister and Minister, in place of en Sadarah (Grand Vizierate) and Sadrazam (Grand Vizier) were some examples of that simple and non-fundamental Westernization. That’s why, in spite of all the reformatory movements, the reign of Mahmud II was not a period of accomplishments and successes but absolutely an era of collapse and devastation. As a matter of fact, if radical reforms had been fulfilled and no deeds had been committed against people’s beliefs, people would not only have supported the reforms and also not applauded Ibrahim Pasha the Son of Kavalalı on his arrival in Kütahya. Briefly, the Ottoman State renounced its own walk but failed to learn the walk of others during the time of Mahmud II [1].


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[1] Jawdat Pasha, History, v. XII, pg. 193 et seq., 205-216, 277-278, 297-306, 311-322; Ahmed Lütfi, History, v. I, pgs. 253-259; v. III, pgs. 142-146; 156-160; Uzunçarşılı, Central Organization, pgs. 177-179, 374-375; Karakoç, Collection of Codes, Documents on the Era of Mahmud II; Okandan, The Outlines of our Public Law, v. I, pg. 61 et seq.; Taqwim al-Waqa’I (First Ottoman Official Gazette), I. Tr. no. 73, 106, 125, 140, 163, 180; Akgündüz, Ahmed, The Institution of Endowments in Islamic Legislation and Ottoman Practice), Ankara 1988, pg. 328 et seq.; Karal, Ottoman History, v. V, pgs. 142-167.

THE FUNDAMENTAL REFORMS REALIZED DURING THE REIGN OF MAHMUD II (1808-1839) AND THE SYSTEM OF COUNCIL OF MINISTERS
ADAPTED FROM EUROPE IN THAT PERIOD


Prof. Dr. Ahmed Akgündüz

www.osmanli.org.tr

The Ottoman Model in Jarusalem

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1. THE CAPITAL OF ALL THE RELIGIONS: JERUSALEM

The city which is called Al-Qudus by the Muslims, Jerusalem by today’s world, Al-Bayt Al-Muqaddas by the Arabs, Iliya by the ancient and Yirusalam or Orushalam by the Hebrews today attracts the eyes and curiosity of the world to itself. Let us know about the City of Jerusalem, where the adherents of all the religions lived in tranquility for about 450 years under the sovereignty of the Ottoman State, in light of the information given by the Ottoman resources:

Al-Qudus (Jerusalem), 62 km to the Mediterranean and 38 km to the Dead Sea, is situated on a high mountainous site, which was surrounded by a wall 13 meters high and 1 meter wide in the time of the Ottomans. It has got seven gates, two of which are closed, and three broad streets. During the reigning era of the Ottomans there used to be four large quarters in Jerusalem. In the northeast thereof was located the Muslim Quarter, where were found the Town Hall, Masjid Al-Aqsa and Sahra Al-Mukaddasa (the Holy Desert). In the northwest was the Christian Quarter, where were found the Cathedral called Kamama wherein it was believed by the Christians the sepulchre of Jesus Christ was found, as well as a great number of churches and monasteries. On the other hand, outside of the city wall were erected those private buildings and offices that belonged to the Russians and the other communities, which thus formed another quarter. Yet, in the southwest of Al-Qudus was the Armenian Quarter and in the southeast the Jewish Quarter. The population of the city was almost 43.000 towards the end of the Ottoman State and the half thereof was composed of Muslims, one-third of the Jews and the rest of the Christians of divers nationalities.

As Jerusalem was a sacred town for not only the Muslims but also the Christians and the Jews, it was visited by a colossal number of visitors from all over the world during the sovereignty of the Ottomans as has the case ever been; and only with the entrance fees levied from the visitors along with the tourism revenues obtained from them the City maintained its economy.

Although it is not known who Jerusalem had been founded by and when, it has from time immemorial been expressed that it is the very same city as the City of Salem of the Hebrews. Again it is known that the Canaanians, had captured this region and built a town called Yabus on the Hill of Sahyun, in the upper side of the City. When the Prophet David rose to the throne in 1049 B.C., they expelled the Canaanians out of Yabus and erected a citadel there. Later, the Prophet Sulaiman (Solomon) had constructed the celebrated temple called Al-Bayt Al-Mukaddas (the Sacred House) and the Palace, unique of its kind, thus having expanded Jerusalem, whenceforth the City began to be named Kadishah, which means Holy. Nevertheless the Asurids demolished Al-Bayt Al-Mukaddas when they captured Palestine, it was later mended. It is also known that Alexander the Great granted Banu Al-Israel (the Sons of Israel) with considerable privileges. With the thorough destruction of Qudus by the Romans in 70 A.C., the Jewish sovereignty in Jerusalem was terminated. From then on, the Byzantine emperors began to repair and restore the City, which they named Ilia, and the temples therein in the name of Christianity.

The City that was conquered by the Khalif Omar in 16 A.H. (After Hegira), while all the religions were being revered, was made an exact City of Islam. The location of Al-Masjid Al-Aksa to replace the Old Temple and its Mihrab (the niche in the wall of a mosque indicating the direction of the Holy Kaaba) were determined and appointed by Omar personally. Thereafter, today’s grand mosque was built by Abdulmalik bin Marwan, an Omayyad khalif. Although the Crusaders transformed Masjid Al-Aksa into a church when they invaded Jerusalem, the City passed anew into the sovereignty of the Muslims by Salahaddin Al-Ayyubi in 1187 A.C. Though the foundation of the wall surrounding Jerusalem had been cast by the Crusaders, it was completed by Sulaiman the Legislator. Jerusalem was governed as a Center of Sanjak (subdivision of a province) affiliated to the State of Damascus for many years in the time of the Ottomans and was made the Independent Province of Jerusalem towards the end of the Ottoman State.

2- HOW DID THE MUSLIMS TREAT THE NON-MUSLIMS?

Like the other Muslim states, the Ottoman State – as they did in every affair - also acted within the frame of the codification they called ‘Shar Al-Sharif’ (Islamic Legislation) as regards to the non-Muslims who lived in the Muslims’ soil of the Muslims. According to the ‘Shar Al-Sharif’, viz. Islamic Canonical Laws, the non-Muslims who made peace with the Muslims and recognized the sovereignty of the Ottoman State were called ‘Dhimmis’, who – without any discrimination of their colors, languages or races – were treated in the same manner in compliance with the decrees of the ‘Shar Al-Sharif’. Although Muhammad the Conqueror had conquered Istanbul by sword, he – merely opining that act of pacification was better going to serve the welfare of the non-Muslim population of the City and also upon the requests of the priests and the rabbis who interceded - granted facilitations, as if Istanbul had been taken through peace. Abussud Effendi, the founder of the Ottoman legislation, explains the continuation of the churches and the synagogues with this delicate empathy and favorable treatment, which is also the case for such countries as Rumelia, Egypt, Palestine and the like.
Needless to mention, dhimmis (the non-Muslims who made peace with the Muslims and recognized the sovereignty of the Ottoman State) who lived in the Muslims’ lands had several dissimilar characteristics from them. Nonetheless, such variances were brought about by different religions. For instance, while the Muslims are liable for zakah (alms-taxes), which is a kind of devotion in Islam, the non-Muslims are not. On the other hand, they are to give jizyah, a sort of tax, Per capita once a year, which varies by their financial capacity and income. The needy, the unemployed, the religious functionaries, the aged and the sick are exempt from this tax. Again, the non-Muslims are not obliged to do the compulsory military service. Yet, in family law, heritage law and as regards with other legal issues related to their religions the legal decrees they believed were applied. Non-Muslims were allowed to travel to Saudi Arabia, however unless necessary they were not allowed to enter Masjid Al-Haram. As for clothing, the-non-Muslims were not permitted to imitate the Muslims. In the meantime, the lives, the property, the chastity and the honor of the non-Muslims – like the Muslims - were untouchable. The indigent non-Muslims benefit from the very same social rights as the Muslims do. With the exclusion of some exceptions, the would do state services and their graves and dead were revered. There was no inequity between the Muslims and the non-Muslims in any lawsuit. The most outstanding evidences to what we heretofore are the documents at the churches, synagogues, graves and archives in Istanbul as well as those court verdicts that convict Ahmad’s against Yorgi’s, Othman’s against Dimitri’s .

We shall highlight this last point in details and analyze the following issues:
1. We shall make mention of the most consequential of the firmans of privileges (edicts of Sultans) of Omar the Khalif, and – based thereupon – of Salahaddin Ayyubi, - again in observance thereof – of Muhammad the Conqueror who had arranged the rights of the Christians in Jerusalem, of Sultan Selim the Excellent who had put Jerusalem under the sovereignty of the Ottomans, and ultimately the Ottoman sultans who followed them.
2. In light of these firmans of privileges the holy places and statuses of the Muslims, Christians and the Jews will be studied.
3. What kind of solution can be found in the case of Jerusalem in consideration of today’s conditions? Some proposals shall be submitted under the Ottoman Model.

I- THE FIRMAN (EDICT) OF PRIVILEGE GRANTED BY THE KHALIF OMAR TO THE NON-MUSLIMS WHEN HE CONQUERED JERUSALEM

First and above all, it should be noted that according to what the Ottomans called ‘Shar Al-Sharif’, that is the Islamic Legislation, in the lands where the Muslims were ruling – as Per the preferred view – the Christians were not allowed to build new churches, nor the Jews new synagogues or the Zoroastrians new houses of fire in villages or towns. On the other hand, they were allowed to maintain those already-existing ones and to restore the demolished ones on condition that they remained as they had been before.
When the Khalif Omar conquered Jerusalem in 15 A.H. by way of peace pursuant to this view, he accorded the same rights to the non-Muslims, which he also confirmed with a written document .
Of the Muslims, it is the Khalif Omar who first conquered Jerusalem by peaceful manners. When the Islamic troops under the command of Abu Ubaidah Ibn Al-Jarrah said to the townsfolk of Jerusalem, who were called Ahl Al-Ilia: “Either you will become Muslims, or you will agree to become citizens of the Muslim country”, after lengthy negotiations – upon the request of the natives of the country – the Khalif Omar, accompanied by Ali, came to take over Jerusalem. Although he asked the Patriarch to take himself to Al-Masjid Al-Dawud (the Mosque of the Prophet David), which is called Al-Sahra Al-Allah (the Desert of God), and to Al-Masjid Al-Sulaiman (the Mosque of the Prophet Solomon), viz. Al-Masjid Al-Aksa, when he was shown the Church of Kamamah and the Church of Sahyun, stating that those places did not correspond with the descriptions of the Prophet Muhammad, the Khalif Omar himself determined the very site of the old temple, videlicet Al-Masjid Al-Aksa, as well as Al-Mihrab (the place in the wall of a mosque showing the direction of Holy Kaabah. After having performed the Friday Congregation Prayer at this mosque, whose name is mentioned in the Glorious Qur’an and which is the third holiest mosque in the sight of the Muslims, he issued two firmans (edicts), one to all the dwellers of Jerusalem, and the other to only the Christian townsfolk. Of these firmans, the one that really interests us is that edict which establish the religious and conscientious liberty of the Christians. Yet we shall make mention of both:

1) The Treaty of Pacification issued by the Khalif Omar to all the townsfolk of Jerusalem reads as follows:
In the Name of Allah, the Most merciful, the Most Beneficent.

a) This treaty is a quarter awarded to the people of İlia from Omar, Ameer of the Muslims and the slave of Allah;
b) It is also a guarantee to their souls, properties, churches, cross, and all their individuals – both dwellers and nomads;
c) Their churches shall not be transformed into houses, nor shall they be demolished or shall they even partly be invaded. Nor shall the sacred goods therein be touched;
d) Their commodities shall be safe;
e) No one shall be oppressed owing to their religion, nor shall they be caused ought harm nor shall the Jews be settled in their lands;
f) In return whereof shall they give jizyah;
g) Whoever wishes to abandon his land shall be secure for his property and life until he has reached his destination. On the other hand, whoever wishes to remain in his soil shall be in safety and pay jizyah. Whoever so wishes may go with the Greek and whosoever so wishes may come back to his land;
h) Naught shall be demanded from them until they have acquired their harvest;
i) This is a Pact of Security by the Prophet of Allah, the khalifs and the believers to the people of Jerusalem so long as they pay jizyah.

THE WITNESSES:
Khalid bin Walid, Amr bin Aas, Abdurrahman bin Awf and Muawiyah bin Abu Sufyan .

2) The firman (edict) written in Cufic script by the Khalif Omar, wherein he specifically mentioned the rights and freedoms of the non-Muslim townsfolk of Jerusalem and which later served as a source of inspiration for the Ottoman Sultans is in the Ottoman Archives. A copy of this firman which was taken to the presence of Muhammad the Conqueror at one time was copied out. We shall publish the original of this copied out edict of the Khalif Omar. It is openly expressed that this firman was written on 20th Rabi-al-Awwal (third month of the Arabic calendar) in 15 A.H., the witnesses whereof are different.

The Copy of the Firman (Edict) of the Khalif Omar bin Hattab

1) Praise be to Allah, for He has blessed us with the Religion of Islam; honored with Faith; shown us His Mercy with His Prophet Muhammad; has guided us to hidayah (the Right Way) from dalalah (wrongdoing); has brought us together after the dissension and united our hearts; made us victorious over our foes; granted us these places; suffered us to be brethren who love one another. O the slaves of Allah! Glorify Allah for all these bounties of Him.

2) This is the written Treaty of Omar bin Hattab, which he has given to Safranbos, the Honorable Patriarch of the Christians, on Tur Al-Zeytun (Mount Olive) in Jerusalem, and which has been arranged in such manner as to be inclusive of all the ra’ayah (all those groups, Muslim or non-Muslim, other than the military elite, occupied with economic activities and thus liable for taxes) as well as priests and patriarchs.

3) All the priests – wherever and in whatsoever conditions they are – shall be secure from us, the Muslims. The security of all the non-Muslims shall be observed as long as they abide by the conditions of the Contract of Dhimmah (duty of tribute and obedience owed to the State by a non-Muslim subject). We the Muslims of the present time and those to come after us in the future are liable to protect them. This will last so long as their obedience continues.

4) As this promise of security and protection is valid for their own selves, it is also valid for their churches, monasteries as well as all their sacred places either within or without the city walls.

5) The sacred places are as follows: The Church of Kamamah, the Big Church in Bayt Al-Lahm, the place of birth of Jeasus Christ; the cave with three entrances one leading to the direction of Kaaba, one leading to the north and one to the west.

6) All the Christian congregations other than those in Jerusalem, in other words the Abyssinian Christians, European visitors, Copts, Syrian Christians, Armenians, Jacobites, Maroons and similar nations are totally subject to the Patriarch, who is presented to them.

7) For the Prophet Muhammad awarded protection and security to the above-mentioned patriarchs and priests with his blessed seal. Accordingly, we the Muslims shall treat them well for the sake of the Prophet Muhammad, who treated them well.

8) These patriarchs and priests shall be exempt from jizyah (Islamic poll-tax imposed upon non-Muslim male adults) and similar liabilities both at sea and on land. Nothing shall be demanded from them for their frequenting the Church of Kamamah and the other holy places. However, those visitors who visit the Church of Kamamah, which is in the hands of the Christians, will pay 11/3 dirhams to the Patriarch.

9) All the Muslims, either male or female, either the Sultan or a judge or a provincial governor, either rich or poor, shall adhere to these our decrees.

10) This very firman (edict) has been given to the Christian chiefs in the presence of the companions of the Prophet Muhammad, viz. Abdullah, Uthman bin Affan, Sa’d bin Zaid, Abdurrahman bin Awf and the other companions of the Prophet Muhammad.

11) Let the decrees declared in this very written firman be observed, abided by and remain in their hands.
20th Rabi Al-Awwal (the third month of the Arabic Calendar).

12) Whoever from among the believers has read this very edict of ours and opposes it now or ever until the Doomsday will have breached the Pact of Allah and rebelled His Beloved Prophet Muhammad.’

As will be understood from the context of the above-captioned firman, the decrees thereof have also been based upon the hadiths (traditions) of the Prophet Muhammad .

The Copy of the Firman (Edict) of Omar bin Hattab
(Prime Ministerial Ottoman Archives, Books of Churches, Book of Kamamah, No: 8)


II. THE FIRMAN ISSUED BY SALAHADDIN AYYUBI

As is known, the first target of the Crusades was to take Jerusalem from the Muslims. As a matter of fact, they accomplished their goal and the allied Crusaders, France being in the first rank, invaded the whole land of Palestine including Jerusalem. Nureddin Al-Shahid and Salahaddin Ayyubi, the founders of Ayyubi State, who resisted this not only routed the Crusaders but re-conquered Jerusalem on 20th September 1187 as well. Although Salahaddin Al-Ayyubi intended to tear down the Church of Kamamah in the first place, he - upon warnings – concluded a treaty of pacification with the Christians in doing which he took as basis the Declaration of Rights of the Khalif Omar, which we have heretofore made mention of, and agreed as follows:

1) The Church of Kamamah shall remain in the hands of the Christians as Per the edict of the Khalif Omar;

2) The Patriarch’s Chamber upstairs shall be transformed into a Masjid (Al-Masjid Al-Salahuddin);

3) The Church worships at the Church Kamamah shall be commenced after having advised the Muslims thereof. On other days, its doors shall be kept closed and a Muslim bawwab (doorkeeper) .

The Treaty of Salahaddin Al-Ayyubi (The Archives of the Armenian Patriarchy in Jerusalem)

III. THE FIRMAN OF MUHAMMAD THE CONQUEROR ON JERUSALEM

Muhammad the Conqueror, who conquered Istanbul in 1453, promoted the Ottoman State to the Sole Super Power of the world like the United States of America of our time. As he issued an edict wherein he secured the rights and freedoms of the non-Muslims who lived in Istanbul, when the Christians in Jerusalem submitted to him the decrees undersigned by the blessed hand of the Prophet Muhammad and the aforesaid firman (edict) of the Khalif Omar written in Cufic script, he likewise issued an edict of rights and freedoms on behalf of the Christians in Jerusalem, which we are hereby publishing the very first time, the original whereof is found in the Patriarchy of the Greek Christians in Jerusalem and a copy of which is in the Ottoman Archives. The person who came to Muhammad the Conqueror to collect it is Atnasiyos, Patriarch of the Greek Christians.

The Firman of Muhammad the Conqueror as regards to the Sacred Places in Jerusalem:

1) Let it be duly abided by. May whoever annuls this blessed imperial decree meet the curse of Allah!;

2) When we conquered Istanbul with the permission of Allah and the spiritual assistance of the Prophet Muhammad, shahs and kings from different parts of the world sent envoys to congratulate us on the conquest. In the meantime, Atnasiyos, the Patriarch of the Greek Christians in Jerusalem, came to me of his own account and submitted to me the Prophet Muhammad’s decree undersigned by his blessed hand, the firman of the Khalif Omar written in Cufic script as well as those imperial edicts of the former sultans, and requested that all the places of worship and voluntary pilgrimage within and without Holy Jerusalem, chiefly the Church of Kamamah remain in their control;

3) Thereupon I decreed that – as has been earlier granted as a favor – the Church of Kamamah and all the places of worship and places of voluntary pilgrimage, which are situated within Jerusalem, Mar Ya’kub, which is a Georgian Monastery, the monasteries and churches outside of Jerusalem, the Big Church in Bayt Al-Lahm, the birthplace of Jesus Christ, and the cave and three gates of the Church remain in their control;

4) Let all the patriarchs, priests and their assistants of the Christians in Jerusalem be exempt from baj (market or transit dues taken on goods for sale Per container), kharaj (a combined land-peasant tax levied from a non-Muslim possessor of state-owned agricultural land) and the other extrajudicial and Islamic taxes;

5) All these rights and freedoms have also been awarded by my firman (edict) as they were granted by the Prophet Muhammad, the Khalif Omar and the former sultans. May all the walis (provincial governors) and the statesmen under my sovereignty adhere to this and may they not disturb anyone;

6) Whoever of khalifs, viziers, savants or of the People of the Prophet Muhammad, (i.e. Muslims) ever opposes hereafter the Prophet Muhammad’s decree undersigned by his blessed hand, the Khalif Omar’s firman written in Cufic script, or the firmans of the other sultans aro my firman for money’s or somebody’s sake may be struck with the malediction of Allah and His Prophet Muhammad;

7) Let this be thus known! Let them trust and comply with the Sultan’s Monogram! 15th Shawwal (10th month of Arabic Calendar) 862/1458 .

In his firman (edict) Muhammad the Conqueror makes mention of every single sacred place of import in Jerusalem. Let us now give the firman in its original form in the Ottoman Turkish:

The most noble decree of Muhammad the Conqueror he granted with his Imperial Rescript:

1) Mucebince amel oluna; her kim hatt-ı hümayun-ı sa’adet-makrunu fesh ederse, Allah’ın la’netine uğrasun.

2) Sebeb-i tahrir-i tevkî`-i refî`-i hümâyûn, vâcib’üt-tastîr-i yarliğ-i belîğ-i hümâyûn –Nassarahullahu Te`âlâ ilâ-i yub`asûn- oldur ki;

3) Bi iznillahi Te’âlâ Hazret-i Resûl hurmetiyle Makam-ı Kostantınıyye feth u fütûh oldukda etrâf ve eknâfdan şahlar ve krallar Âsitâne-i Sa`âdetime elçiler gelüb feth u fütûhı arz edüb bu kerre Kudüs-i Şerif’de olan Rumların Patriği Atnasiyos (?) nam râhib rızalarıyla gelüb Âsitâne-i Sa`âdetime yüz sürüb ve Hazret-i Resûl-i Ekrem Hazretlerinin (Sallalahu aleyhi ve sellem) mübarek eliyle ve pençesiyle imzalu olan hatt-ı hümâyûnları ve Hazret-i Ömer bin Hattab Hazretlerinin (Radiyallahu Te`âlâ anh) verdüği Hatt-ı Kufi ile ve selâtîn-i mâziyeden hatt-ı hümâyûnları ibraz edüb ve ricâ eyledi. Ol minval üzere Kudüs-i Şerif içerüsün ve taşrasunda namazların ve ziyaretlerin kel-evvel Hazret-i Resûl-i Ekrem Hazretlerinin (Sallalahu aleyhi ve sellem) ve Hazret-i Ömer bin Hattab Hazretlerinin (Radiyallahu Te`âlâ anh) ve selâtîn-i mâziyeden sadaka ve ihsan olunan hatt-ı hümâyûnları mûcebince zabt ve tasarruf eyleyeler.

4) İmdi kadimden ferman ve sadaka olunub bi aynihi içerüde olan Kamame ile cemî` namazgahları ve ziyaretleriyle ve Gürci Manastırı olan Mar Yakub ve Kudüs-i Şerif taşrasında olan manastırlar ve kiliseler ve Hazret-i İsa (Aleyhisselam) Hazretlerinin doğduğı Beytüllahm Kilisey-i Kübrâ ve Mağara ve Kilisede olan üç kapu miftahlarıyla şimal ve kıble ve garbî tarafından içinde olan cemî`-i millet-i Nasrâniyye Kudüs-i Şerif Patrikleri, yamakları bu vefk üzere eşyaları bâc ve harâcdan ve kakırlardan ve sâir tekâlif-i örfiyyeden kadîmden sadaka ve ihsan ve ferman olunan bi aynihî küllîsinden mu`âf ve müsellem olmak içün rice eyledükleri ecilden; imdi kadîmden Hazret-i Resûl-i Ekrem Hazretlerinin (Sallalahu aleyhi ve sellem) ve Hazret-i Ömer bin Hattab Hazretlerinin (Radiyallahu Te`âlâ anh) ve selâtîn-i mâziyeden sadaka ve ihsan ve ferman olunan hatt-ı hümâyûnları mûcebince, cenâb-ı celâletim dahi sadaka ve ihsân ve fermân-ı âlî-şânım olmuşdur.

5) Tasarrufumda ve hükmümde olan memleketler eğer deryadan ve karadan hâkim`ül-vakt olanlar Kudüs-i Şerif Patriği ve ruhbanları mezbûrlara himâyet ve sıyânet ve âhardan kimesne rencide eylemeyeler.

6) Ve eğer Hazret-i Resûl-i Ekrem Hazretlerinin (Sallalahu aleyhi ve sellem) sadaka ve ihsan olunan mübarek pençesiyle imzalu olan hattı ve Hazret-i Ömer bin Hattab Hazretlerinin (Radiyallahu Te`âlâ anh) verdüği Kufi ile hattı ve selâtîn-i mâziyeden sadaka ve ihsan olunan hatt-ı hümâyûnları ve el-ân sadaka ve ihsan olun hatt-ı hümâyûn-ı sa`âdet-makrûnı ve fermân-ı âlî-şânı alub bundan sonra gelen halifeler ve vüzerây-ı izâmdan ve ulemâdan ve ehl-i örfden ve kapu kullardan ve sâir Ümmet-i Muhammed’den akçe içün veyahud hâtır içün feshine murâd ederler ise, Allah’ın ve Hazret-i Resûlün hışmına uğrasun.

7) Şöyle bileler, alâmet-i şerife i`timâd ve inkıyâd kılalar. Tahrîren fî evâsıt-ı Şehr-i Şevvâl’il-Mükerrem li seneti isneyn ve sittîn ve semâne-mi`ete. Sene 862
Bi Makam-ı Kostantınıyye” .

The most noble decree of Muhammad the Conqueror he granted with his Imperial Rescript (Prime Ministerial Ottoman Archives, Books of Churches, Book of Kamamah, No: 8).

IV – THE RIGHTS AWARDED TO THE PEOPLE IN JERUSALEM

We are here to emphasize once again that – for it is regarded the fountainhead and the center of Christianity – Jerusalem accommodated in certain years patriarchies and bishoprics of divers schools of Christianity. Further, within Jerusalem and in the vicinity thereof were some sacred places attributed to Jesus Christ and such places and buildings as pertain to Mother Mary and some other Christian saints. Even after the region entered into the sovereignty of Islam, the Christian communities and those sacred places and buildings continued in existence. The maintenance, protection and use of places of worship were handed to Christian communities of divers schools. After Jerusalem had passed to the administration of the Ottoman State, the Sultans issued various firmans (edicts) to publicize the rights and privileges of the Patriarchy and the Christian community

This conduct was likewise repeated by Sultan Selim the Excellent when he conquered Jerusalem in 923(A.H.)/1517(A.C.): Lest the rights of the non-Muslims should be overlooked he proclaimed a written firman, which is of great significance from the aspects of not only securing the rights of the non-Muslims against infringements but also advising them of their rights, thus preventing them from transgression thereof. This firman, which was penned by the then qadi (judge) of Qudus Al-Sharif (Holy Jerusalem), Muhammad, was copied out by Sarkiz Karakoç, who was an Armenian as well, from the original copy thereof which is found at the State Archives of the Armenian Patriarchy in Jerusalem . It is also found in the Book of Churches at the Prime Ministerial Ottoman Archives.

The date of the Ottoman sultan’s visit to Jerusalem is almost exact. Having left Damascus Sultan Salim the Excellent came to the Manor of Jaljuliyah on 27th December 1516, where he received the news of the victory of Khan Yusuf. They reached Ramlah the following day, at which place they stayed between 28th to 30th December. The army troops remained in Ramlah and on 31st December the Sultan set out for Jerusalem accompanied by some statesmen and soldiers, who were composed of Yunus Pasha, Husam Pasha, Hafidh Muhammad, Hasan Can, Mullah Idris (Idris of Bitlis), Beylerbeys (governor generals), Secretaries of the Council of State, Nishanjis (officers whose duty was to inscribe the Sultan’s imperial monogram over all imperial letters-patent), Silahdar Aghas (sword-bearer of the Sultan) and their Katibs (Scribes), Qadhaskers (chief military judges), Right and Left Ulufajiyan (paid soldiers), Right and Left Gharibs (member of a certain cavalry unit), 1000 Tufakchi Janissaries (guards at the Imperial Palace) and 500 Sipahis (cavalry soldiers) .

According to the firman (edict) the subject could be outlined as follows: Sultan Salim the Excellent came to Al-Bayt Al-Maqdis in Jerusalem on 25th Safar (second month of the Arabic Lunar Calendar) 923 (A.H.)/1517 (A.C.). In the company of the other priest, the Armenian Patriarch, Sarkiz, went to the Sultan to ask him to grant them favors, in which regard they requested him to let them keep on under their control the churches and places of worship, which had from ancient times under their administration as well as to renew the treaty the Khalif Omar and Salahaddin Ayyubi had granted to them. Thereupon, it was decided that the Armenian priests would continue to be authorized to hold under their control - as they had been doing – Kamamah, the Cave of Al-Bayt Al-Lahm, where Jesus Christ had been born, the keys of the gate in the north, the two candle-sticks and their candles at the gate of Kamamah inside, Big Churches, Mar Yaqub, the Churches of Dayr-uz-Zaytun and Habs-ul-Masih and the foundations thereof, vineyards, gardens, the nations of Abyssinia, Copt and Assyria, which were of the same religion, and their produces and in similar affairs. Again, as per the aforementioned treaty nobody would interfere with them. Let may children, viziers, the pious, qadis (judges), beylerbeys (gornors general), governors of sanjaks (subdivisions of a province), vaivodes (kind of governor or mayor), subashis (polici superintendents), and the like act by this.

While he was in the Sahara of Jerusalem, Sultan Salim the Excellent awarded similar firmans (edicts) to both the Armenian people and the Armenian Patriarch Atalya. While as basis to the text do we take that edict given to the Armenian Patriarch, as the text in Ottoman Turkish shall we take the firman given to the Greek Christians, which is found in the Ottoman Archives.

Herebelow is the original text of the document in Ottoman Turkish:

"1. Emr-i Şerifim mûcebince her kim bir gayrı şekle giderse ve bozarsa, Allah Te`âlânın kılıncına uğrasun.

2. Nişan-ı Şerif-i Alişân-ı Sâmî-i Sultâni Ve Tuğrây-i Garrâyı Cihan Sitân-i Hâkân-î bil- Avn'ir-Rabbânî ve'l-men'ni's-Sübhânî hükmü oldur ki ;

3. avnillâhi Teâlâ ve Resûlihi, Kudüs-i Şerif'e gelüb mâh-i Safer-ül Hayr'ın 25. gününde feth-i bab olunub Ermeni tâifesine patrik olan Serkiz nâm râhib cümle ruhbân ile maa reâyâ ve berâyâ gelüb atâ ve in'âmımdan ricâ ve temennâ kılmışlardır. Kadimen meşrûtaları olub uhdelerinde olan kenise ve manastır ve sâir ziyâretleri ve içerüde ve taşrada vâki kenise ve ma'bedhâneleri kadimden zabt ve tasarruf edegeldikleri minval üzre Ermeni tâifesine patrik olanlar zabt ve tasarruf eyleyeler.

4. Hazret-i Omer (R.A.} Hazretlerinin olan Ahidnâme-i Hümayun ve merhûm melik Selâhaddin zamanından beri verilen evâmir-i şerifeler mûcebince zabt ve tasarruflarında olan Kamame ve Beytüllahım mağara ve şimal tarafındaki kapu ve kenise-i kübrâları, Mar-Ya'kub ve Deyr'üz Zeytun ve Habs'ül-Mesih ve Nablüs ve keniselerine tâbi' hemmilletleri olan Habeş ve Kıbtî ve Süryanî milletleri, Mar Ya'kub keniselerinde mütemekkin olan Ermeni patrikleri tarafından zabt ve tasarruf olunup âher milelden min ba'd bir ferd müdâhele etdirilmemek babında bu Nişân-ı Hümâyûn-ı saâdet-makrûnımı verdim.

5. buyurdum ki; mûcebince amel olunup, zikrolunan Kenise-i Kübraları, Mar Yakub'da mütemekkin olan Ermeni Patrikleri içerüde ve taşrada vâki olan keniseleri ve manastırlar ve sâir ziyâretgâhları ve kendülerine tabi milletleri ve yamakları olan Habeş ve Kıbtî ve Süryâni milletleri âyinleri üzre zabt ve tasarruf eyleyüp vâki olan umurlarına ve azl ve nasb ve sâir vakıflarına müteallik hususlarına ve mürd olan metropolid ve piskopos ve ruhban ve papaz ve yamaklarının ve sâir Ermeni tâiesi patriklerinin zabt ve tasarruflarında olan kenise ve manastır ve ma'bed ve sâir ziyaretlerinin ve kendülere tâbi hem milletlerine ve yamaklarına âher milelden min ba'd bir ferd müdâhele eylemeyüb ve Kamame ortasında vâki olan türbesi ve Kudüs-i Şerif taşrasında Meryem Ana Makberesi ve Hazret-i İsa (A.S.) doğduğu Beytüllahm mağara ve şimal tarafında olan kapunun miftahı ve içerüde Kamame kapısında iki şamdan ve kandilleri ve türbe kapısında ve içerisinde olan kandilleri ve yaktıkları şem ve buhurları ve kamame içinde âyinleri üzre nâr-ı şem’ zuhurunda kendülere tâbi olan hem milletleriyle türbe dâhiline girüb ve havalisinde devr etmeleri ve kapu içerüsinün zir ü bâlâsı ve iki penceresi ve içerüde olan ma'bed ve ziyâretleri ve su kuyusu ve Kamame havlusunda vâki Mar Yuhanna Kenisesi ve taşrasında Mar-Yakub kurbünde vâki Habs'ül Mesih ve sâir manastırları ve makberelikleri ve medfenleri ve Beytüllahın mağara kurbünde olan odaları ve misâfirhâneleri ve bağ ve bağçe ve zeytünlükleri ve bilcümle zikrolunan kenise ve manastır ve ma'bed ve ziyâretgâhları ve kendülerine tâbi hem milletleri ve sâir emlâk ve tevâbi-i kadimeleri tayin olunduğu üzre Ermeni tâifesi ve patrikleri zabt ve tasarruf eyleyüb ve keniselerine ziyârete gelen Ermeni taifesi zemzem tabir olunur su üzerine ve panayırlarına ve sâir ma'bed ve ziyaretlerine vardıklarında ehl-i örf tâifesinden ve âherden min ba'd bir ferd dahl ve taarruz eylemeyüp ba'del-yevm vech-i meşrûh üzre verilen Nişân-ı Hümâyûn-ı saadet-makrûnum mûcebince amel olunub âher milletten bir ferdi müdâhele ettirmeyüb ol-babda evlâd-ı emcâdımdan veyahud vüzerây-i izâmımdan ve sulehây-ı kirâmımdan ve kadılardan ve beğlerbeği ve sancak beği ve mîr-i mîrân ve voyvodaları ve beytülmal ve kassâm adamları ve subaşıları ve zuamâ ve erbâb-ı tımar ve mutasarrıfın-i emvâl ve sâir kapum kullarımdan ve gayriden muhassalâ vazî’ ve refî’ ve kebirden hiçbir ferd-i efrâd-ı âferideden kâne men kân vechen min'el-vücûh ve sebeben mine'l-esbâb dahl ve taarruz kılmayub tebdil ve tağyir eylemeyeler. Her kim dahl ve taarruz ve tebdîl ve tağyir eder ise, indellâhil-Melik-il-Mu’în zümre-i mücrimîn ve a'dâd-ı âsiminden ma'dûd olalar.

6. Şöyle bileler, hükm-i kişver-ktişâ ve tuğrây-ı garrây-ı âlem-ârâ ile mücellâ ve müzeyyen görenler mazmûn-ı meymûnın muhakkak ve fahvây-i hümâyunun musaddak bilüb alâmet-i şerife itimad kılalar.
Kütibe fi sene selâsin ve işrîne ve tis'amie Sahray-ı Kudüs-i Şerif” .

Copy of the Firman (Edict) of Rights and Freedoms Sultan Salim the Excellent had given to the Patriarch of the Greek Christians in Jerusalem (Ottoman Archives, Book of Churches, No: 8; for the copy awarded to the Armenians, see Ottoman Archives ‘The Classification of Kamil Kepeci, The Item of Bishops’ Muqataa - a farming out of public revenue - Subject to the Item of Financial Matters’ No: 2539, page: 2)

V – THE FIRMANS ISSUED BY OTHER SULTANS

The tradition beginning with the Khalif Omar and continuing with Salahaddin Ayyubi to quote each and every sacred place in Jerusalem through firmans and to determine the rights and freedoms of the non-Muslims who resided in the city lasted until the City was recaptured from the Ottoman State. Nonetheless, we shall here have cited only those firmans (edicts) proclaimed by Muhammad the Conqueror and Salim the Excellent, making mere mention of the others, for we do not wish to further elongate our article.

However, we ought hereby to state that, with the exclusion of the temporary interventions by France and Russia, Jerusalem experienced an epoch of utter peace and tranquillity under the sovereignty of the Ottoman State. Ottoman State offered perfect counsel as regards to the sacred places in the region to such countries as France who attempted to interfere in the affairs of Jerusalem on the pretext of the guardianship of the Christians. In this case, if – just as the Ottoman State did – no matter by whom the City is ruled – it is taken into consideration that Jerusalem is the common capital of all the three religions and provided also that all the holy places and the places of worship pertaining to all the religions in the region are held in due esteem and reverence, peace and tranquillity shall certainly have been reestablished just as it was accomplished during the reigning era of the Ottomans. By virtue of the significance of the question, we would like to introduce the holy places and the places of worship pertaining to every religion on basis of the information revealed by the firmans.

3. DETERMINATION OF THE SACRED PLACES IN JERUSALEM

Jerusalem has been under the sovereignty of the Muslims for about 1400 years, with the sole exceptions of the short intervening period during the Crusades and the temporary cases at the time of the fall of the Ottoman State. And at present we are experiencing the third exceptional interim, which has been brought about by Israel with its invasion of Jerusalem. It is particularly a matter of wonder by whichever criteria the holy places had been divided during the ruling era of the Ottoman State for 450 years that no serious disorders or conflicts broke out. To answer this question accurately, we are to put forth brief descriptions of the sacred places and the places of worship in Jerusalem.

I – THE HOLY PLACES PERTAINING TO THE CHRISTIANS

Those sacred places that had been alluded to in the firmans of the Ottoman Sultans and the Khalif Omar are actually the sacred places and the places of worship of the Christians. For the sovereignty of the Hebrews over the territory terminated in 70 (A.C.), which, towards the end of the VII. Century passed to the Muslims.

Upon France’s demand in 1850’s, the Ottoman State instituted a Commission of History, who listed the Christians’ sacred places within and in the vicinity of Jerusalem as follows:

1) The Church of Kamamah: It is another name for the Church of Kiyama which had been erected by the Byzantine Emperor Constantine circa 326 (A.C.) on the site claimed to be the tomb of Jesus Christ. This building, which is the place of pilgrimage not only for the Christians but the Jews as well, is also called Bab-ul-Kamamah. Kamamah is a term used by Muslim historians. It was re-mended during the Crusades from 1130 (A.C.) to 1149 (A.C.). Christians from all over the world of all nations, French, English, Greek, Georgian, Abyssinian, etc. were all allowed to visit here freely. The Church of Kamamah is a place of worship regarded holy by all the Christian sects. Some of the legal decrees related to the issue are as follows:

THE LEGISLATION OF KAMAMAH IN HOLY JERUSALEM

25. Seven coins of florins are taken from visiting Franks, viz. Europeans. And at Bab Al-Kamamah (the Outermost-Gate of Kamamah) fifty akchas (small silver coins) are demanded from them as Rasm Al-Kal’a (fortress-toll) and at the Gate of Kamamah forty-five akchas as toll. The mentioned taxes are levied on the visiting unbelievers who come from the European countries;

26. And three Kayitbay gold coins are collected from Greek travelers, and the same from the visitors from the Orient.

27. And two kayitbay gold coins are imposed on the visitors from Aleppo and Damascus, and one Kayitbay gold coin on Egyptian travelers;

28. And twenty-five akchas are charged on the unbelievers who come from Salt, Ajlun and Ramlah. And four akchas are collected from the unbelievers coming from Jerusalem and Halil Al-Rahman (may the Greetings of Allah be upon him);

29. And from the unbelievers who pay a visit on Christian festivals are taken one akcha at three places. And from the European merchants who have come from Damascus are collected two and a half gold coins apart from the aforementioned established taxes. And nothing is demanded from the unbelievers from Georgia and Abyssinia. And one akcha is taken from the European travelers per week.

2) The Grand Dome of the Church of Kamamah Small Dome
The Grand Dome of the Church of Kamamah and the Small Dome on the place known as the Tomb of Jesus Christ: Similar to the Church of Kamamah, they are the common sacred places held in high esteem by all the Christian sects.

3) The Arch composed of Seven Parts called Sitt Al-Maryam
This is also a common place that pertains to all the Christian sects.

4) The Arch made up of Four Parts under Jaljalah:
Half of them belong to the Greek Christians while half to the Latin.

5) The Sahara around Hajar Al-Mughtasal: This is a common region as well.

6) The Tomb of Mary and the Adjacent Yard:
Like the Church of Kamamah this is a common holy place for all the Christian congregations.

7) The Grand Church at the Village of Bayt Al-Lahm:
Inside this grand church is found the cave called Al-Maghara Al-Mahd renowned as the birthplace of Jesus Christ. Further, the keys of the gates of this cave in the directions of the Qiblah (the direction to which Muslims must turn for prayer), north and south are esteemed as holy by all the Christian communities. This place was the cause of grave conflicts among the Greek Christians, the Latin and the Armenians. This cave, which we can call the ‘Cave of Cradle’, is today open for visit to all the groups. The keys of the gates were at times handed to the Latin and at times to Greek Christians.

8) The Gardens composed of two lots adjacent to the Frank Monastery:
They are the gardens at Bayt Al-Lahm.

9) The Cisterns located on the site named Tahun Al-Atik.

10) The Building said to be the Tomb of Jesus Christ.

11) The Cave called ‘Al-Maghara Al-Ruat’ and the surrounding Field.

12) Al-Hagar Al-Mughtasal: A building regarded holy by all the Christians.

13) Al-Maghara Al-Mahd: This is the cave wherein Jesus Christ was born. The church built upon this cave is named the Grand Church.

14) The Church of Mar Yuhanna in the Yard of Kamamah; the Church of Mar Yakub outside; the Monastery of Habs Al-Messiah nearby; the Monastery called Al-Dayr Al-Zaytun; the Georgian Monastery and the like sacred places of worship.
These are only several outstanding holy places. There, surely, exist others.

II- THE HOLY PLACES THAT PERTAIN TO MUSLIMS

As a matter of fact, the title above is incorrect, for – with some exceptions – most of the places considered as holy by the Christians and the Jews are sacred for Muslims as well. Besides, there are such places as are esteemed holy only by Muslims. Because Jerusalem has been ruled by Muslims for 1400 years and most of the sacred places pertaining to the former religions are also regarded holy by them and Jerusalem had been the first qiblah for Muslims as well as by virtue of similar reasons our space here does not suffice to make mention of all the sacred places that pertain to Muslims in Jerusalem. All the same, we shall quote the most significant ones:

1) Al-Masjid Al-Aksa: It is the mosque which was built on the site of the former place of worship of the Prophet Sulaiman (Solomon), which is also mentioned in the Glorious Qur’an. In fact, it is located in the Muslim Quarter in Jerusalem. Also, it is the third mosque mentioned by the Prophet Muhammad in his tradition: “One has to travel for three masjids (mosques)”.

2) Al-Bayt Al-Haram: It includes the district and the premises therein between Al-Qubbah Al-Sahra and Al-Masjid Al-Aksa.

3) Al-Qubbah Al-Sahra: It is the dome built over a rock called Sahra Al-Allah or Hagar Al-Sahra in the vicinity of Al-Bayt Al-Haram. It was later transformed into a mosque, under which is found a cave where were found such holy relics as the footprints of Archangel Jibril Al-Ameen (Gabriel) and the Prophet Muhammad, the banners of the Prophet Muhammad and the Khalif Omar, the shield of Hamzah, a companion and an uncle of the Prophet Muhammad, the gold nails hammered in by the Prophet Muhammad, etc. It is usually – and mistakenly – known as Al-Masjid Al-Omar. Visitors circumambulate Al-Hagar Al-Sahra.

4) Al-Dahma Al-Mutabarrikah: It is place which is said to be the site of the tombs of the Prophets Ishaq (Isaac), Ya’kub (Jacob), and Yusuf (Joseph) and even some 200 prophets.

5) Al-Rumman Al-Dawud (Prophet David): It is said to be the place where the Prophets Dawud (David) and Ilyas (Elias) would worship. It is seen when entering Al-Qubbah Al-Sahra.

6) In short, each and every single place like the Well of the Prophet Joseph, the Tomb of the Prophet David, and similar places that pertain to prophets are also held in high esteem by Muslims, to which are to be added those mosques, masjids (small mosques), madrasas (Islamic schools) and zawiyahs (cell of a recluse) which had been constructed during 1400 years.

III- THE HOLY PLACES PERTAINING TO THE JEWISH

As the Jews had lost their sovereignty in Jerusalem as after 70 (A.C.), no mention has been made in history as regards to their holy places other than their alleging that the Wailing Wall and such places as they deem holy are unique and exclusive to the Jews.

IV- THE SOLUTION IN JERUSALEM: IT IS THE OTTOMAN MODEL TEMPORARY TRANSFER TO THE UNITED NATIONS

After the latest clashes and the diplomatic endeavors that have been carried on for many years with no outcome is obviously comprehended that it is out of the question to find any solution to the Problem of Jerusalem thereby. If lesson is derived from history, there certainly exist ways out of the crisis of Jerusalem. Our proposal is to return those days of peace and tranquillity by setting forth, with some additions, from the Ottoman Model that had been successfully practiced for 450 years, wherefore:

1) It is impossible to transfer Jerusalem to the unique sovereignty of the Jews. If the states of the world are really contemplating this, they certainly are preparing the Doom’s Day. For the Problem of Jerusalem shall continue until there remains only one Muslim in the world as the Affair of Jerusalem is a matter of faith for Muslims.

2) Jerusalem has been an important land of places of worship for Christians ever since 70 (A.C.). This being the case, it is infeasible to seek a remedy to the Crisis of Jerusalem disregarding the Christian world.

3) The Jews, on the other hand, consider it a religious task to appropriate Jerusalem calling it so-called Al-Ardh Al-Maw’ud (the Promised Land).

4) The three points heretofore being into account will it be clearly perceived that ‘Jerusalem is a religious prerequisite either for all the three religions or none’. Accordingly, after the Ottoman Modal, this city is to become the Holy Common Capital of all the three religions.

5) For this reason, Jerusalem ought to be transferred temporarily to the United Nations and the United Nations must appoint a Governor General to Jerusalem from Muslims, Christians and Jews alternately and by turns. If this model does not work, then a citizen of an impartial country could be assigned for this task. Or the City should be governed by Jewish and Palestinian governors alternatively.

6) As the Ottoman State did, the Muslim, Christian and Jewish Quarters ought to be separated. As a matter of fact, the holy places of worship of each religion do not interpenetrate. Only, the Jews’ Wailing Wall and Muslims’ Masjid Al-Aksa have to be established on sound bases.

7) As was the case in the Ottoman State, total freedom is to be granted to those places of worship and sacred places esteemed holy by each religion as well as their religious beliefs.

8) Jerusalem should quit being the capital of Israel.

9) In brief, the Ottoman Model is to be applied in Jerusalem in that the United Nations’ Sovereignty will replace the Ottoman Sovereignty so that the old peaceful days should be brought back.

10) Otherwise, it should not be forgotten that the end of the world shall be caused by the Crisis of Jerusalem.

THE OTTOMAN MODEL IN JERUSALEM,
THE COMMON CAPITAL OF ALL THE RELIGIONS
By
Prof. Dr. Ahmed Akgündüz
Rector of the Rotterdam Islamic University,
the Netherlands and
Chairman of the Ottoman Researches Foundation

www.osmanli.org.tr

The First Model For The EU: Ottoman State - 2The First Model For The EU: Ottoman State - 2

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4. The Ottoman State May Guide to the Solution for the Problem of Modernity

The problem with the issue of Islam and time exigencies is the problem of co-existence and coordination between two objects that are against each other in their natures. One is fixed and irrevocable in nature, while the other is revocable, not fixed and fluid. Since Islamic rules could not be abrogated, they are unchangeable and permanent, and since time exigencies or any other issue related to time, including human necessities and living conditions, are not fixed, it is but natural for them to undergo changes. Some Western scholars and politicians are accusing Islam with this reason.

An eminent Ottoman Scholar had drawn our attention to this point:

'Sacred laws change according to the ages. Indeed, in one age different prophets may come, and they have come. Since subsequent to Islamic Law is sufficient for all peoples in every age, no need has remained for different laws. However, in secondary matters, the need for different schools of law has persisted to a degree. Just as clothes change with the change of the seasons and medicines change according to dispositions, so sacred laws change according to the ages, and their ordinances change according to the capacities of peoples. Because the secondary matters of the ordinances of the Islamic Law look to human circumstances; they come according to them, and are like medicine.

At the early times, since social classes were far apart and men's characters were both somewhat coarse and violent, and their minds, primitive and close to nomadism, the laws at that time came all in different forms, appropriate to their conditions. There were even different prophets and laws in the same continent in the same century. If, like students of a school of higher education, the vast majority of mankind were clothed in the same sort of social life and attained the same level, then all the schools could be united.' (Bediuzzzaman, Said Nursi, The Words, 27th Word)

The Ottoman State has solved this problem and used restricted power of legislation during the period. The provisions of regulations in the Ottoman Legislation are divided into two groups:

A) Such decrees as were directly based upon the Holy Qur’an and Sunnah and codified in books of Fiqh (Islamic Jurisprudence) were called Shariah decrees, Shar al-Sharif or Shariah Legislation, which decrees formed most of the Ottoman Legislation. Accordingly, ‘Duerar wa Gurar’ by Molla Husraw and ‘Multaqah’ by Ibrahim of Aleppo were regarded as the Civil Code of the Ottoman State. The sources of Shariah Law were classified into two groups: a) primary sources, also called Adillah al-Shar’iyyah, which are four: the Noble Qur’an, Sunnah, Ijmah (the general concurrence and agreement in opinion and decision of the legalists) and Qiyas (analogy); b) Secondary sources, which are the rules of traditions and customs, istislah (rendering easy), istihsan (commendation), ancient regulations of law, narrations of Ashab al-Qiram (the Exalted Prophet’s Companions) and the like sources.

These decrees bind all the Muslims without requirement for the approval of any person or institution. In other words, all the Muslims, also including Sultan and Caliph, are liable to observe the said decrees. The principles of Shariah Legislation have been codified with books of Islamic Jurisprudence.

B) Particularly financial law, territorial law, penalties of ta’dhir, arrangements on military law and administrative law based upon the restricted legislative authority vested by Shariah decrees and those jurisprudential decrees the foundation whereof were such secondary sources as customs and traditions and public good, which were such titles as public law, Siyasah al-Shar’iyyah (Shariah Politics), Qanun (Code), Qanunnamah (Legislation) and the like. As the said could not exceed the limits of Shariah principles either, they may not be regarded as a legal order outside the Islamic Legislation.

Decrees of Ijtihad (Jurisprudence) wherefore there exists no obvious mention in the Holy Qur’an or Sunnah, the sources whereof are istihsan (commendation), public good or the like secondary sources, the most noteworthy characteristics whereof is that they are not binding unlike the former. This being the case, those who reveal or determine by Shariah evidences such decrees are legists of ijtihad, Sultans, Caliphs or Legislative Councils[4].

In Ottoman State before Tanzimah (Reforms) that legislative power of Ulu al-Amr, the limits whereof have been defined in law books, was generally used by Sultans and Padishahs. As and when it was so required for public good, some ijtihads (jurisprudences) were preferred; decrees were issued upon the fatwahs received from the Shaikhulislam in face of newly emerging legal matters; particularly the regime of the conquered lands was arranged in conformity to public interest; and ta’dhir penalties were arranged in divers fashions according to the changing time. Thus such legal arrangements as were issued in administrative, financial, penal and different legal fields, at various intervals and on several occasions, with the Sultan’s orders and edicts based upon the fatwahs of the theme’s Shaikhulislam were compiled either exactly or in summary or were collected upon Sultan’s demand under the title of ‘Qanunname’ (Legal Code). Though we have in hand legal codes transmitted from earlier times pertaining to the Dulqadirids and Aqqoyunids, the majority of those codes numbering 700 belonged to the Ottoman Sultans and especially Sultan Sulaiman the Lawmaker. Again do we witness that legal codes were divided into two parts among themselves:

A) General Codes: They contained sovereign legal rules valid for the whole Ottoman land, as instances whereof were two legal codes pertaining to the Conqueror – one concerning State organization and the other penal legislation; general legislation belonging to Sultan Selim the Excellent; general legislation pertaining to the Lawmaker; Legislation of Tawqii Abdurrahman Pasha (Ottoman State Organization); Legislation of Ahmed III; and two legal codes belonging to the Dulqadirids.

B) Private and local legal codes: Ottoman administrators did the survey and registry of every land they annexed to the country through conquest and entered special codes at the beginning of the written survey of the concerned province in consideration of the legal status of the land, the ancient customs and traditions prevalent in that region, ancient orders, the fertility of the land and the population. The majority of those legal codes were such whose decrees had been adapted forms of those decrees in the general codes to the concerned regions. In the legal codes were found some special provisions that concerned those regions whereto they pertained. For instance, while the Cretan Legal Codes included such decrees as were related to private land and kharaj, the Budin Legal Codes was composed of decrees that were related to miri land. We shall have published 760-odd Legal Codes, both general and private, in our work called the Ottoman Legal Codes.

The Ottoman Legal Codes bear such importance that they would require re-writing of the 6-century-long history of the Ottoman State, which form the longest period of the Turkish – Islamic History, for law is such a real mirror that it reflects all the aspects of human life. In fact, it cannot be gainsaid that law forms an indispensable element of human societies and even – with the expressions of a legist - “it is the very self of human life”. The Ottoman Legal Codes were sources of first instance not only for the Ottoman Law, but also for the Ottoman history, the Ottoman civilization as well as the military, economic, religious and social history thereof.

Another thorny issue is the problem of constitution. Abdulhamid II, who took the issues of the constitutional regime and Qanun al-Asasi on his agenda with the vehement wishes of the Grand Vizier of the time, Ahmed Midhat Pasha, ordered the authorized Islamic jurists of the time to prepare their explanatory reports on whether in the first place the preparation of such a constitution and the formation of a Parliament to be vested with legislative authority in certain matters would be in discordance to ‘Shar al-Sharif’, which was the basis of the Ottoman legislation. The views on that issue could be summarized in two points:

Firstly: It is contrary to the Islamic Legislation to prepare such a constitution called ‘Qawanin al-Siyasah’ (Political Codes) or ‘usul’ (manner) and to abide by the laws to be introduced by a Parliament to be formed by such a constitution. The holders of that view had thought that the constitution to be prepared was going to lead to the introduction of such laws as would be overtly in discord with Shariah decrees and they were disagreed with by the majority. The most significant point whereon they were based was the issue that Majlis al-Shurah (Advisory Council) was to be composed of solely Muslims, not non-Muslims. Fatwah Emini Kara Khalil Effendi ranked first among the holders of that view.

Secondly: It is permissible to establish a legislative body in nature of a ‘Shurah Council’ (Advisory Council) on condition that it should remain within the frame of restricted legislative power granted to Ulu al-Amr (senior administration staff) the limits whereof have been determined in Islamic Legislation and that it should not contradict the existing Shariah decrees; and yet it is legal to prepare a Qanun al-Asasi (Constitution), called Usul, to arrange the principles thereof. As a matter of fact, it is necessary. The leader of those who defended this view was Saifuddin Effendi, of the members of the State Council, who had convinced the senior officers of the State through his speech.

There have been eminent scholars of Islam who have stated that it is permissible by Islamic Legislation to prepare a fundamental law, i.e. Constitution, also called ‘Dustur or Usul’. We can mention an explanation about this issue for a big Ottoman Scholar

“Mashrutiyyah (Constitutional regime) comes to mean the accumulation of consultation, justice and power in legislation. Constitutional regime and Constitution are made up of real justice and Shariah consultation. Our worldly felicity is based on the Constitutional regime. The enemies of the Constitutional regime increase the enemies of consultation by showing the Constitutional regime as cruel, ugly, and contrary to Islamic Legislation. Truths do not change by changing their names. As social ties, means of earning the living, and favors of civilization were not so profuse in the past, the views of few people sufficed for the administration of the State. Nevertheless, social relationships have increased and necessaries have diversified so greatly that only a Parliament, the heart of the nation, can administer the State with Shariah consultation, which means the opinion of the Islamic nation, and intellectual freedom, which means the sword of civilization”.

Though the precise date thereof is unknown, the eminent jurists of the four mazhabs (schools) in Cairo sent an explicatory report to Abdulhamid II in support of the Parliament, which is the heart of the Islamic nation. This document is also found in the Ottoman Archives. Yet some other explanatory reports are available in the Ottoman Archives on behalf of the Constitution (Kanun al-Asasi) and the Parliament that had been conveyed to Abdulhamid II. We would not like to go into further details here.

Abdulhamid II, who regarded those opinions on behalf of the Constitution as basis, took the Advisory Council (Majlis al-Shura) in the Islamic Legislation as fundamental and made some modifications in the explicatory report prepared by the State Council (Shura al-Dawlah) chaired by Ahmed Midhat Pasha, and then on 23 December, 1876/ 7 Dhilhajjah 1293 issued permission for the promulgation of Qanun al-Asasi (the Constitution). Thus the Ottoman State became a Constitutional regime and a Legislative Council was first accepted so that it should carry out its legislative task within the limits of sovereign legislation.[5].

5. Conclusion

As long as the West looks upon its culture as the superior culture in all aspects –endeavoring to humiliate other cultures without making efforts to understand them, and tries to globalize one, and only one, culture- the world will not come out of its present difficulties. Muslims and amid them Ottoman State have tried their best to adopt new scientific, social and philosophical ideas from other cultures, especially from the West, and adapt it to their own value system. They have not, generally, treated their shari’a as an invariable, rigid command, but as a guide to walk towards God, with the adaptations required by each historical and social content. It is now West which should participate in this mutual effort of understanding and cultural interchange.

Is it possible to consider 1915 Armenian Deportation as an Armenian genocide? How can we reply the allegations of Armenians and Western authors on this subject?

The matter is to be explicated from various perspectives:

Firstly; throughout the history Armenians lived in the Ottoman land as a Millah al-Sadiqah (Loyal Nation) in the status called dhimmi, viz. non-Muslim citizens of a Muslim country, and the Ottoman State granted them all the rights and freedoms it did to its Muslim citizens. I ought here to mention that if we the Muslim Turks had not respected the rights and freedoms of the minorities ever since 1071, that is for 909 years, a long period in history, would it be possible to mention today of the existence of minorities in Turkey, even in a small quantity? The fact that no trace of Muslim minorities survived in Spain in the simultaneous period of time clearly evidence the real attitudes of Europeans, rather the Christian nations, and us the Muslims on this subject. The Armenians were granted not only basic rights and freedoms but also the religious freedoms in light of the principles introduced by the Religion of Islam. After Tanzimah (Reforms), particularly during the time of the Unionists, political rights were accepted for Armenians as well as for the Muslims, to such an extent that Abdulhamid II was even accused of being a killer of Armenians. During the reign of Abdulhamid II, Agop Pasha was Chancellor of Exchequer. Yet the Unionists got so imprudent that they appointed Gabriel Noradungiyan, who had betrayed the Ottoman State, as Foreign Minister.

In return for the Ottoman State’s mentioned acts, the Armenians, having been provoked by Russia and based on Provision 61 of the Treaty of Berlin, began to rebel against the State and massacre the Muslim people and especially the Muslim Turks in the Eastern and South Eastern cities, where they never managed to form the majority. The members of Hınchaq Association, which was formed in 1886, and the members of Tashnaq Association, which was an Armenian committee likewise, started terrorizing the Ottoman land. Abdulhamid II, who stopped that terror with the help of the Hamidiyyah Regiments, was accused as Kızıl Sultan (Sultan the Crimson). On the other hand, Hamparsum Boyajiyan, who had rebelled in 1894, was elected by the Unionists into the Parliament as Minister of Harput. The conspiracy wherein they attempted to murder Abdulhamid with a bomb, the consecutive Armenian riots in Istanbul, etc. clearly evidence that they followed the orders of foreign powers.

Ad extremism, the Armenians in the East began to hit the Ottoman State from behind, which entered the First World War on 29 October, 1914, together with Russians. As a matter of fact, when the Russians who evacuated Van delivered the city to Armenians, the Armenians started massacring Muslims in the East (3.8.1915). 1.300.000 Armenians were living in Eastern and South-Eastern Anatolia at the time, which constituted only 5 % of the population. When the massacres by the Armenians of Muslims could not be prevented despite of all the measures, in April 1915 Minister of Interuor, Tal’at Bey, issued a decree that 500.000 Armenians in the Eastern and South Eastern Anatolia should be deported (tahjir), with an objective to driving Armenians away from the ways of Russian troops. While some of the Armanians, who were deported to Iraq, Syria and Lebanon under the protection of soldiers, died on their way owing to heavy traveling conditions and starvation, some others were killed by some civilian dwellers of the region whose relatives had been earlier massacred by Armenians. Yet the number of Muslims that had been massacred by Armanians total around 1.000.000. Yet on the other hand, American authorities and army officers who had lived amidst the events refused the allegations of Armenian Genocide in spite of all the clamours of the European countries; au contraire, they authenticated the verity of the massacring of Muslims. These reports are found in the American archives.

Secondly; all the Muslim Turkish States, especially the Ottoman State, materialized all their military operations completely within the limits of Islamic Legislation. According to Islamic Legislation, even in a situation of actual war Islamic armies are banned from committing certain acts against the people and goods of the enemy and particularly massacres. One of the most significant reasons that enabled our ancestors to run from a victory to another was their verbatim ac litteratim observance to those principles. In fact, their victories were proportionate to their obedience to those essentials. Let us summarize the banned acts and explain why the alleged massacre was impossible: killing enemy soldiers through tortures and tyranny and murdering such unwarring people as women, children, slaves who had come to serve their masters, the disabled and the chronic, the old, the sick, the mad, and the ecclesiastic who gave up mundane life were forbidden. Nevertheless, if any one of the heretofore listed people participated in a battle with his/her body, intellect or goods, it would be permissible that they be killed. Again, it was illegal that any parts of the body of either human beings or animals be mutilated (muslah). It was unlawful to act against a given promise or a signed treaty. Agricultural produces, forests or trees could not be cut down without any belligerent necessity. Adultery or illegitimate relations were prohibited. Hostages could not be killed. The head or body organs of the dead could not be mutilated; and no massacre could be committed. Close relatives – and particularly the father, tradesmen and merchants, who had nothing to do with war, could not be murdered. Whereas there happened to be further inhibitions, we here suffice with the ones mentioned heretofore.

The above-said provisions were also known by Tal’at Pasha, who issued the decree of deportation. In fact, although the documents in the Ottoman Archives have been divulged to researchers and the accusers have been challenged to prove their allegations ever since 1986, no jurist – be they Muslims or non-Muslims – has come across a single document to prove that the Ottoman State committed a massacre.

Thirdly; as for the legal basis of Tahjir, viz. Deportation, the Exalted Prophet Muhammad deported the Jews of Quraizids from Madinah, for they betrayed although they had promised to protect the city as their common land against the foes. Thus it is permissible to carry out deportation with the same reason, as was in the case of the Ottoman State in April 1915.

Consequently, although there is no truth in it, that the Muslim Turkish nation has been continuously accused for almost a century of having committed an Armenian genocide is neither historical nor scientific but solely political. By opening the Ottoman Archives the Turkish Republic has given the best reply to such allegations [6].

[4] Ibn’ul-Qayyim Al-Jawzi, İ’lam-ul-Muwaqqıîn, v. IV. pgs. 372-378; BA, YEE, no. 14-1540, pg. 12 et seq.; Cin-Akgündüz, Turkish Legal History, v. I, Konya 1989, pgs. 140, 157.
[5] BA, YEE- 23-1515; 14-1540, 1610; BA, YEE, nr. 23-1516, sh. 2 vd.; BA, YEE, nr. 23-1421-11-71; YEE, 23-1515; BA, YEE, nr. 14-1610; Alûsî, Mahmûd, Ruh'ul-Maanî I-XXX, Beyrut, c. 28, sh. 20 vd. Ayrıca bkz. İbn'ül-Kayyım, İ'lâm'ül Muvakkıîn, an Rabbi'l-Âlemîn I-IV, Beyrut 1973, c. 4, sh. 372-377; Baykal, Bekir Sıtkı, “93 Meşrutiyeti”, sh. 45-83; Baykal, Bekir Sıtkı, “Birinci Meşrutiyete Dair Belgeler”, Belleten, c. XXIV, sayı 96(1960), sh. 601-636; Pakalın, Mehmed Zeki, Son Sadrazamlar ve Başvekiller, İstanbul 1940, c. I, sh. 325 vd.; Said Nursî, Divan-ı Harb-ı Örfî, 66-67; Münâzarât, Teksir, 10 vd.; Mürsel, Safa, Devlet Felsefesi, 259 vd.; Akgündüz, Ahmed, Eski Anayasa Hukukumuz ve İslâm Anayasası, İstanbul 1997; Ebül-Ülâ, Mardin, Medenî Hukuk Cephesinden Ahmed Cevdet Paşa, İstanbul 1946, sh. 8-10, 143; Karakoç, Tahşiyeli Kavanin, c. II, sh. 29 vd.; Okandan, Âmme Hukukumuzun Anahatları, c. I, sh. 134 vd.; Düstur, I. Ter. 4/2-3; 1293/1876 tarihli Kanun-i Esasi, md. 42-78; md. 3, 7, 11 (Düstur, I. Ter. 4/4-58); İbn'ül-Emin Mahmut Kemal, Son Sadrazamlar, c. I, sh. 325 vd. (II. Abdülhamit'in takdim nutku); Okandan, Âmme Hukukumuzun Anahatları, c. I, sh. 143 vd.; 150-151; Osman Nuri, Abdülhamid-i Sâni ve Devr-i Saltanatı, İstanbul 1327, sh. 30-100; Okandan, Âmme Hukukumuzun Anahatları, c. I, sh. 116-134; Mahmûd Celâleddin Paşa, Mir’ât-ı Kâinât, c. I, sh. 188-200, 220-224; Karal, Osmanlı Tarihi, c. VIII, sh. 215-230.
[6] Kur’ân, Haşr, Âyet 1-2; Elmalı, Muhammed Hamdi, Hak Dini Kur’ân Dili, sh. 4806-4819; Süslü, Azmi, Ermeniler ve 1915 Tehcir Olayı, Ankara 1990, sh. 61-177; Öztuna, Osmanlı Devleti Tarihi, c. I, sh. 659-662; Uras, Esat, Tarihte Ermeniler ve Ermeni Meselesi, İstanbul 1987, sh. 149-639; Sonyel, Salâhi R., “Yeni Belgelerin Işığı Altında Ermeni Tehcirleri”, Belleten, c. XXVI, sayı 141(1972), sh. 31-49; Sonyel, Salâhi R., “Tehcir ve “Kırımlar” Konusunda Ermeni Propogandası Hıristiyanlık Dünyasını Nasıl Aldattı?”, Belleten, c. XLI, sayı 161(1977), sh. 137-175.

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